Archangel Michael

Also called Michael the Taxiarch. A taxiarch is used in the Greek language to mean “brigadier,” or a commander of a company. In Greek Orthodoxy, it refers to the Archangels Michael or Gabriel as leaders of the heavenly hosts.

Michael is an archangel & warrior of God in Christianity, Islam, & Judaism. The earliest surviving mentions of his name are in the 2nd or 3rd centuries BC Jewish works, often but not always apocalyptic. In these works, he’s the chief of the angels & archangels. He’s the guardian prince of Israel & is responsible for the care of the people of Israel.

Christianity conserved nearly all of Jewish traditions concerning him. He’s mentioned explicitly in Revelation 12:7-12, where he does battle with Satan, & in the Epistle of Jude, where the archangel & the devil have an argument over the body of Moses.

The Book of Enoch lists Michael as 1 of 7 archangels. The remaining names are: Uriel, Raguel, Raphael, Sariel, Gabriel, & Remiel. He’s mentioned again in the last chapters of the Book of Daniel, a Jewish apocalypse composed in the 2nd century BC, in which a man clothed in linen tells Daniel that he & “Michael, your prince” are engaged in a battle with the “prince of Persia,” after which, at the end-time, “Michael, the great prince who protects your people, will arise.”

Enoch was instrumental in establishing the pre-eminent place of Michael among the angels & archangels. In later Jewish works, he’s said to be their chief, mediating the Torah, & standing at the right hand of the throne of God.

In the traditions of the Qumran community, he defends, or leads, the people of God in the end-time battle. In other writings, he’s responsible for the care of Israel & acts as commander of the heavenly armies. He’s Israel’s advocate, contesting Satan’s claim to the body of Moses.

He intercedes between God & humanity & serves as High Priest in the heavenly sanctuary. (So would this make him Aaron’s equal? We’re sincerely asking. Let us know your take in the comments.) He accompanies the souls of the righteous dead to Paradise.

The 7 archangels (or 4, as traditions differ, but always include Michael) were associated with the branches of the menorah, the sacred 7-branched lamp stand in the Temple, as the 7 spirits before the throne of God. This is reflected in the Book of Revelation 4:5. Michael is mentioned explicitly in Revelation 12:7-12, where he does battle with Satan & casts him out of heaven so that he no longer has that exclusive access to God as accuser (his former role in the Old Testament).

Satan’s fall at the coming of Jesus marks the separation of the New Testament from Judaism. In Luke 22:31, Jesus tells Peter that Satan has asked God for permission to “sift” the disciples, the goal being to accuse them. But the accusation by Jesus, who thus takes on the role played by angels, & especially by Michael, in Judaism.

Michael is mentioned by anem for the 2nd time in the Epistle of Jude, which is an impassioned plea for the believers to engage in battle against the incursion of the error. In verses 9-10, the author denounces the heretics by contrasting them with the archangel Michael, who, in disputing with Satan over the body of Moses.

According to rabbinic tradition, Michael acted as the advocate of Israel. Sometimes he had to fight with the princes of other nations (Daniel 10:13), & particularly with the angel Samael, Israel’s accuser. Their hostility dates from the time Samael was thrown from heaven & tried to drag Michael down with him, requiring God’s intervention.

The rabbis declare that Michael came into his role as defender at the time of the biblical patriarchs. Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob said Michael rescued Abraham from the furnace into which he’d been thrown by Nimrod. Some say he was the “one that had escaped” (Genesis 14:13), who told Abraham that Lot had been taken captive & who protected Sarah from defilement by Abimelech.

Michael prevented Isaac’s being sacrificed by his dad by substituting a ram in his place. He saved Jacob, while still in his mom’s womb, from death at the hands of Samuel. Michael later prevented Laban from hurting Jacob. The midrash Exodus Rabbah holds that Michael exercised his function as an advocate of Israel at the time of the Exodus & destroyed Sennacherib’s army.

Epiphanius of Salamis (circa 310-circa 320-403), in his Coptic-Arabic Hexaemeron, referred to Michael as a replacement of Satan. Accordingly, after Satan fell, Michael was appointed to the function Satan served when he was still 1 of the noble angels.

A painting of Michael slaying a serpent became a major art piece at the Michaelion after Constantine defeated Licinius near there in 324. This contributed to the standard iconography that developed of Michael as a warrior saint slaying a dragon. The Michaelion was a magnificent church & in time became a model for hundreds of other churches in Eastern Christianity.

In the 4th century, St. Basil the Great’s homily, De Angelis, St. Michael over all the angels. He was called “Archangel” because he heralds other angels, the title archangelos applied to him in Jude 1:9. The angelology of Pseudo-Dionysius, which was widely read as of the 6th century, gave Michael a rank in the hierarchy of angels.

Later, in the 13th century, others such as Bonventure believed him to be Prince of the Seraphim, the 1st of the 9 angelic orders. According to Thomas Aquinas, Michael is the Prince of the last & lowest choir, the Angels.

Catholics often refer to Michael as “Holy Michael, the Archangel” or “St. Michael.” He’s generally referred to in Christian liturgies as “St. Michael,” as in the Litany of the Saints. In a shortened archangel, is mentioned by name, omitting Saints Gabriel & Raphael.

In Roman Catholic teachings, St. Michael has 4 main roles or offices. His 1st role is the leader of the Army of God & the leader of celestial forces in triumphing over the powers of Hell. He’s viewed as the angelic model for the virtues of the “spiritual warrior,” his conflict with evil taken as “the battle within.”

The 2nd & 3rd roles of Michael in Catholic teachings deal with death. In his 2nd role, he’s the angel of death, carrying the souls of Christians to Heaven. In his 3rd role, he weighs souls on his perfectly balanced scales. The scales are a common object he holds in art.

In his 4th role, St. Michael, the special patron of the Chosen People in the Old Testament, is also Guardian of the Church. St. Michael was revered by the military orders of knights during the Middle Ages. The names of villages around the Bay of Biscay reflect this history.

The Eastern Orthodox give Michael the title Archistrategos, or “Supreme Commander of the Heavenly Hosts.” The Eastern Orthodox pray to their guardian angels & above all, to Michael & Gabriel. The Eastern Orthodox have always had a strong devotion to angels. In modern times, they’re referred to by the term “Bodiless Powers.” Several feasts dedicated to Archangel Michael are celebrated by the Eastern Orthodox throughout the year.

In Russia, many monasteries, cathedrals, courts, & merchant churches are dedicated to the Chief Commander Michael. Most Russian cities have a church or chapel dedicated to the archangel Michael. In Ukraine, the archangel Michael is the patron saint of Kyiv. He became popular from the time of Prince Vsevolod of Kyivan Rus’.

While in the Serbian Orthodox Church, St. Sava has a special role as the establisher of its autocephaly & largest Belgrade church devoted to him, the capital Belgrade’s Orthodox cathedral, the see church of the patriarch, is devoted to Michael.

The place of Michael in the Coptic Church of Alexandra is as a saintly intercessor. He’s the 1 who presents to God the prayers of the just, who accompanies the souls of the dead to Heaven, who defeats the devil. He’s celebrated liturgically on the 12th of each Coptic month.

In Alexandria, a church was dedicated to him in the early 4th century on the 12th of the month of Paoni. The 12th month of Hathor is the celebration of Michael’s appointment in Heaven, where Michael became the chief of the angels.

Seventh-Day Adventists believe that “Michael” is but 1 of many titles applied to the pre-existent Christ, or Son of God. According to Adventist theology, Michael was/is considered the “Eternal Word,” & the 1 by whom all things were created. The Word was then born, incarnated as Jesus.

They believe that the name “Michael” signifies “One Who Is Like God” & that, as the “Archangel” or “chief or head of the angels,” he led the angels; thus, the statement in Revelation 12:7-9 refers to Jesus as Michael.

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Michael is another name for Jesus in Heaven, in His pre-human & post-resurrection existence. They say the definite article in Jude 9 identifies Michael as the only archangel. They consider Michael to be synonymous with Christ, described in 1 Thessalonians 4:16: “with a cry of command, with the voice of an archangel, & with the sound of the trumpet.”

They believe the prominent roles assigned to Michael in Daniel 12:1, Revelation 12:7, Revelation 16, & Revelation 19:14 are identical to Jesus’ roles, being the 1 chosen to lead God’s people & as the only 1 who “stands up,” identifying the 2 as the same spirit being.

Because they identify Michael with Jesus, he’s considered the 1st & greatest of all God’s heavenly “sons,” God’s chief messenger, who takes the lead in vindicating God’s sovereignty, sanctifying his name, fighting the wicked forces of Satan & protecting God’s covenant people on earth. Jehovah’s Witnesses also identify Michael with the “Angel of the Lord” who led & protected the Israelites in the wilderness.

Members of the Mormon Church believe that Michael is Adam (of Adam & Eve fame), the Ancient of Days (Daniel 7), a prince, & the patriarch of the human family. They also hold that Michael assisted Jehovah (the pre-mortal form of Jesus) in the creation of the world under the direction of God the Father (Elohim). Under the direction of the Father, Michael also cast Satan out of Heaven.

In Islam, Mika’il (Michael) is 1 of 4 archangels along with Jibril (Gabriel, whom he’s often paired with), Israfil (trumpeter angel) & ‘Azra’il (angel of death). In other Islamic literature, Michael is associated with mercy. He asks God for forgiveness for humans & is 1 of the 1st angels who obeyed God’s orders to bow before Adam.

From the tears of Michael, angels of mercy are created as his helpers. Like Gabriel, with whom he’s often mentioned together, Michael is also a messenger. While Gabriel delivers messages from Heaven to humans, Michael delivers messages to the angelic world.

As the angel to execute God’s providence, he’s also associated with natural phenomena & causes rain upon the lands. Unlike Christian traditions, Michael is rarely shown as a warrior-angel, with a few references to the Battle of Badr by Suyuti as an exception.

The Miraj literature on occasion mentions both Gabriel & Michael as 2 angels who showed Muhammad Paradise & Hell. He’s mentioned in Shia supplication (Dua), reportedly handed down by the 6th Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq, in the prayers for blessings for the Bearers of the Throne.

The figures of Michael & Gabriel/Jibril serve as dual pillars of angelology. While they show up in the same texts, their “personalities” & mythological roles are distinct. Michael is the celestial soldier & protector. While Gabriel is the bridge between the divine mind & the human ear.

The name Michael (Mikha’el) translates from Hebrew as a rhetorical question: “Who is like God?” This name is actually a battle cry used during the primordial war in Heaven.

In the Book of Daniel, Michael is described as the “Great Prince” who stands guard over the people of Israel. Jewish Midrash expands on this. It suggests that Michael is the high priest of the Heavenly Temple. When other nations’ guardian angels argue against Israel, Michael acts as the defense in the celestial courtroom. Because after all, God is the judge of all.

Michael’s most iconic role comes from the Book of Revelation. Here, he leads an army of God against the Dragon (a.k.a. Satan). He’s almost always dressed in Roman/Medieval armor, standing over a defeated demon/dragon, holding a spear/sword.

In Catholic traditions, Michael has a secondary role as the Psychopomp. A Psychopomp is a conductor or a guide of souls. The 1 who “weighs” souls at the moment of death. This is why he’s sometimes shown with scales.

In Islamic tradition, Mikail (Michael) is 1 of 4 archangels. While Jibril feeds the soul (through revelation), Mikail is the Angel of Sustenance. He’s responsible for the forces of nature, specifically rain & lightning. Legends say he’s so moved by the majesty of God that he hasn’t smiled since the creation of Hell.

In the United States, Michael is the patron saint of paratroopers, police officers, & the military.

In the General Roman Calendar, the Anglican Calendar of Saints, & the Lutheran Calendar of Saints, Michael’s feast day is Michaelmas Day (September 29). The day is also the feast day of St. Gabriel & Raphael, in the General Roman Calendar & the Feast of St. Michael & All Angels in the Church of England.

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, St. Michael’s principal feast day is November 8. November 21, if they’re using the Gregorian calendar. Honoring him along with the rest of the “Bodiless Powers of Heaven” (angels) as their Supreme Commander, & the Miracle at Chonae is celebrated on September 6.

In the Coptic Orthodox Church, the main feast day is on 12 Hathor (between November 9 & December 9) & 12 Paoni (between June 8 & July 7). He is celebrated liturgically on the 12th of each Coptic month.

On April 7, the Oriental Orthodox Church commemorates the deliverance of the prophet Jeremiah from prison by Michael.

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Pelagius

He was a Christian theologian known as an ascetic monk & promoting a system of doctrines (termed Pelagianism by the Catholic Church), which emphasized human choice in salvation & denied original sin.

Pelagius was accused of heresy at the Synod of Diospolis in 415. His doctrines were harshly criticized by Augustine of Hippo, especially the Pelagian views about mankind’s good nature & individual responsibility for choosing asceticism. Pelagius especially stressed the freedom of human will.

Pelagius was active between circa 390 & 418. Pelagius was tall & portly in appearance. He was also highly educated, spoke, & wrote Latin & Greek with great fluency. He was well-versed in theology. Pelagius became better known around 380 when he moved to Rome. There, he enjoyed a reputation for austerity. When Alaric sacked Rome in 410, Pelagius & his follower, Caelestius, fled to Carthage, where he continued his work.

The view that mankind can avoid sinning, & that humans can freely choose to obey God’s commandments, is held to have stood at the core of Pelagian teaching. Pelagius stressed human autonomy & freedom of will. For Pelagius, grace consisted of the gift of free will, the Law of Moses, & the teachings of Jesus.

According to Augustine, Pelagius saw baptism of infants as useless because they had no sin. Celestius, who was a disciple of Pelagius, also denied original sin & the necessity of infant baptism for salvation. Seeking to undo his condemnation, Pelagius wrote a letter &statement of belief to Pope Zosimus, Pope Innocent I’s successor, arguing that he was orthodox.

In these, he articulated his beliefs so as not to contradict what the synods condemned. Pope Zosimus was persuaded by Celestius to reopen the case. But opposition from the African bishops & Emperor Honorius forced Pope Zosimus to condemn & excommunicate Celestius & Pelagius in 418. Pelagianism was condemned at the Council of Carthage in 418. Augustine, shocked that Pelagius & Celestius weren’t denounced as heretics, had called the Council of Carthage in 418.

After his condemnation, Pelagius was expelled from Jerusalem. St. Cyril of Alexandria allowed him to settle in Egypt. He’s not heard of afterwards.

His death didn’t end his teachings. Although those who followed him may have modified those teachings. Because little info actually remains concerning Pelagius’ actual teachings, some of his doctrines possibly were subject to revision & suppression by his enemies.

Pelagius & Caelestius were declared heretics by the First Council of Ephesus in 431.

Belief in Pelagianism & Semipelagianism was common for the next few centuries. Especially in Britain, Palestine,& North Africa. St. Germanus went to Britain to fight Pelagianism in or around 429 AD. In Wales, St. David was credited with convening the Synod of Brefi & the Synod of Victory against the followers of Pelagius in the 6th century.

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Ancient of Days

This is a name for God in the Book of Daniel. This term appears 3x in the Book of Daniel (7:9; 13; 22). This term is used in the sense of God being eternal.

In the Zohar (the seminal document of Kabbalah that emerged in 13th century Spain) there’s mention of the Ancient of Ancients, & the Holy Ancient One. The Ancient of Days is the manifestation of the Ancient of Ancients within Creation. It refers to the most primary (“ancient”) source of creation in the divine will Keter (“Crown”).

In the 16th century Lurianic Kabbalah, Atik Yomin is systemized as the uppermost Partzuf (Divine “Countenance/Configuration”) in rectification of the World of Atzilut (“Emanation”) after the “Shattering of the sephirot Vessels.”

Keter of Atzilut acts as the guiding Divine motivation in creation, developing into 2 partzufim, Atik Yomin (Ancient of Days) & Arich Anpin (“Long Visage/Infinitely Patient One”). Atik Yomin is the inner partzuf of Keter, synonymous with Divine Delight, that enclothes within & motivates Arich Anpin, the outer partzuf of Keter, synonymous with Divine Will.

Arich Anpin is said to extend down all levels of Creation in ever more concealed mode as the divine substratum of everything. The Zohar goes into great detail describing the White Head of God & ultimately by Luria, emanation of its anthropomorphic personality of attributes.

In the descending realms explained by Luria, the Gulgalta (“Skull”-Keter Will) within Arich Anpin enclothes the Chesed (Kindness) of Atik Yomin, becoming the origin of the lights of the world of Atzilut; the Mocha Stima’ah (“Concealed Brain” – Chokmah Wisdom) within Arich Anpin enclothes the Gevurah (Severity) of Atik Yomin, becoming the origin of the vessels of the world of Atzilut.

The Dikna (“Beard”) of Arich Anpin constricts the infinite light originating from Atik Yomin in 13 channels of rectification to lower, relatively finite reality. The Merkabah text Re’uyot Yehezkel identifies the Ancient of Days as Metatron. Metatron is an angel in Judaism, Gnosticism, & Islam.

In Eastern Orthodox Christian hymns & icons, the Ancient of Days is sometimes identified with God the Father or occasionally, the Holy Spirit. But most properly, in accordance with Orthodox theology he’s identified with God the Son, Jesus.

Eastern Christian art will sometimes portray Jesus as an old man, the Ancient of Days, to show symbolically that he existed from all eternity. Sometimes as a young man, or wise baby, to portray him as he was incarnate.

This iconography emerged in the 6th century. Mostly in the Eastern Empire with elderly images, although usually not properly or specifically identified as “the Ancient of Days.” The 1st images of the Ancient of Days, so named with an inscription, were developed by iconographers in different manuscripts, the earliest of which are dated to the 11th century.

The images in these manuscripts included “Jesus Christ, Ancient of Days,” confirming that this is a way to identify Christ as pre-eternal with the God the Father. Later, it was declared by the Russian Orthodox Church at the Great Synod of Moscow in 1667 that the Ancient of Days was the Son & not the Father.

In the Western Church, similar figures usually represent ONLY God the Father. In the Book of Enoch, it states that he who’s called “Son of man,” who existed before the worlds were, is seen by Enoch in company with the “Ancient of Days.”

According to the Urantia Book, the Ancients (yes, plural) of Days are an order of celestial beings created by the Trinity to serve in groups of 3 as the rulers of the 7 super-universes of time & space. The Urantia Book is a spiritual, philosophical, & religious book that originated in Chicago, Illinois. It was printed sometime between 1924 & 1955.

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St. Martin’s Day

This is also called Martinmas or Martlemas. It’s historically called Old Halloween or All Hallows Eve.

This is the feast day of St. Martin of Tours. St. Martin of Tours was the 3rd Bishop of Tours. He’s the patron saint of many communities & organizations across Europe, including France’s Third Republic. It was celebrated in the liturgical year on November 11.

During the Middle Ages & early modern period, it was an important festival in many parts of Europe. Particularly in Germanic-speaking countries. In these areas, it started at the end of the harvest season, the beginning of the cold season, & the “winter revelling season.”

Traditions include feasting on goose or beef, drinking the first wine of the season, & mumming. Mumming is groups of men & women from the medieval to early modern era who are dressed in fantastical clothes, & costumes, & serenaded people outside their houses, or joined the party inside. Costumes varied including bears, deer, rams, or unicorns.

In some German & Dutch-speaking towns, there are processions of kids with lanterns (Laternelaufen), sometimes led by a horseman representing St. Martin. The saint was also said to bestow gifts to kids. In the Rhineland, it’s also marked by lighting bonfires.

Traditionally, in many parts of Europe, St. Martin’s Day marked the end of the harvest & the beginning of winter. The feast dovetails with the end of the Octave of Allhallowtide.

Martinmas was when livestock was slaughtered for winter supplies. Goose is eaten at Martinmas in most places. There’s a legend that St. Martin, when trying to avoid being ordained a bishop, hid in pin of geese whose noise gave him away.

In the wine growing regions of Europe, the first wine was ready around the time of Martinmas. St. Martin is widely credited in France with helping to spread winemaking throughout the region of Tours (Touraine) & facilitating vine-planting. He’s also credited with introducing the Chenin blanc grape. Most of the wine of western Touraine & Anjou is made from these grapes.

In the Rhineland region of Germany, bonfires are lit on St. Martin’s Eve. In the 15th century, the bonfires were so many that the festival got the nickname: Funkentag (Spark Day). In the 19th century, it was recorded that young people danced around the fire & leapt through the flames. The ashes were strewn on the fields to make them fertile.

In some German & Dutch-speaking towns, there are nighttime processions of kids carrying paper, or turnip, lanterns & singing songs of St. Martin.

In parts of Flanders & the Rhineland, processions are led by a man on horseback representing St. Martin. This man on horseback may give out apples, nuts, cakes, or other sweets to the kids.

In Ypres, kids hung up stockings filled with hay on Martinmas Eve. They woke up the next morning to find gifts in the stockings. The gifts were said to have been left by St. Martin was thanks for the fodder provided for his horse.

In the Swabia & Ansbach regions of Germany, a character called Pelzmarten (‘pelt Martin” or “skin Martin”) appeared at Martinmas until the 19th century. With a black face & wearing a cow bell, he ran about scaring the kids & he gave out “blows” as well as nuts & apples.

In the 6th century, church councils began requiring fasting on all days, except on Saturdays & Sundays, from St. Martin’s Day to the Epiphany on January 6 (That’s 56 days.). Elsewhere, the Feast of the Three Wise Men for the stopping of the star over Bethlehem.

An addition to & equal to the 40 days of Lent, given its weekend breaks, this was called Quadragesima Sancti Mantini (St. Martin’s Lent or literally “the 40th of”). This is rarely observed now.

This period was shortened to begin on the Sunday before December & became the current Advent within a few hundred years. In the Archdiocese of Milan according to Ancient Ambrosian Liturgical usage the feast of St. Martin is followed by the First Sunday in the Advent (the 6-week period) is still used in this large Diocese & the Churches outside it, such as in Ticino (Switzerland) that do still use the Ambrosian Liturgy.

In the United States, St. Martin’s Day celebrations are uncommon. But are usually held by German-American communities. Many German restaurants feature a traditional menu with goose & Gluhwein (a mulled red wine). St. Paul Minnesota celebrates with a traditional lantern procession around Rice Park. The evening includes German treats & traditions that highlight the season of giving. In Dayton, Ohio, the Dayton Liederkranz-Turner organization hosts a St. Martin’s Family Celebration on the weekend with an evening lantern parade to the singing of St. Martin’s carols, followed by a bonfire.

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Quanzhen School

This is 1 of the 2 predominant sects of Taoism/Daoism in China. It started in the Shandong peninsula in 1170.

One of the founders was master Wang Chongyang (1113-1170). When the Mongols invaded China, the Quanzhen Taoists exercised great effort in keeping the peace. This ended up saving the most Han Chinese lives. Qiu Chuji, a major disciple of Wang, founded the Dragon Gate lineage. Along with the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing. This tradition is 1 of the largest Taoist sects that remain in China today.

Their 3 most important scriptures are:

• The Daoejing
• The Qingjing Jing (Classic of Clarity & Stillness)
• Yinfujing (Scripture of the Inner Talisman), a 6th century text

After these 3 texts, the writings of Wang Chongyang are also important. One particular text of his is: the Lijiao shiwu Iun (Fifteen discourses to Establish the Teachings). In the Longmen (Dragon Gate) sub-school of Quanzhen, the writings of Qui Chuji are also important. Quanzhen can be literally translated as “All True.” It’s often called the “All Truth Religion,” the “Way of Completeness & Truth,” or the “Way of Complete Perfection.”

The Quanzhen School pursues the process of “alchemy within the body” or Neidan (internal alchemy). This is opposed to Waidan (external alchemy, which experiments with the ingestion of herbs, minerals, etc.).

The Waidan tradition has been replaced mostly by Neidan. Because Waidan was dangerous & lethal pursuit sometimes. Quanzhen focuses on the internal improvement of the person. This is consistent with the pervading Taoist desire for attaining Wu Wei. This is essentially unconscious action.

Quanzhen priests are concerned with longevity & immortality through alchemy, harmonizing oneself with Yin & Yang.

Wang believed that the 3 teachings, Buddhism, Confucianism, & Taoism, were like the 3 legs of a tripod. He promoted the study of the Confucian Classic of Filial Piety & the Buddhist Heart Sutra.

According to traditional legends, Wang Chongyang met 2 Taoist immortals in the summer of 1159 CE. The immortals, Zhongli Quan & Lu Dongbin, taught him Taoist beliefs & trained him in secret rituals. The meeting proved very influential.

In the 2nd encounter, he was provided with a set of 5 written instructions which led to his decision of living by himself in a literal grave. He created this grave for himself in the Zhongnan Mountain for 3 years.

After 7 years of living in the mountain (3 inside the grave & the other 4, in a hut he later called “Complete Perfection Hut”), Wang met 2 of his 7 future disciples, Tan Chuduan & Qui Chuji.

In 1167, Wang traveled to Shandong Province & met Ma Yu, & Ma’s wife, Sun Bu’er. They would become his students. These, & others, would part of the 7 Quanzhen disciples, who were later known as the 7 Masters of Quanzhen.

After Wang’s departure, it was to his disciples to continue to put forth the Quanzhen beliefs. Ma Yu succeeded Wang as the head of the school. While Sun Bu’er went on to establish the Purity & Tranquility School, one of the foremost branches of Quanzhen.

Another notable disciple of Wang was Qiu Chuji, who founded the famous White Cloud Monastery in Beijing. Qui Chiji was the founder of the school called Dragon Gate Taoism.

The 7 disciples of Wang Chongyang continue expounding the Quanzhen beliefs. The 7 Masters of Quanzhen established the following 7 branches:

• Ma Yu: Yuxian lineage, Meeting the Immortals
• Tan Chuduan: Nanwu lineage, Southern Void
• Liu Chuxuan: Suishan lineage, Mount Sui
• Qui Chuji: Longmen lineage, Dragon Gate Taoism
• Wang Chuji: Yushan lineage, Mount Yu
• Hao Datong: Huashan lineage, Mount Hua
• Sun Bu’er: Qingjing lineage, Purity & Tranquility School

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Mariology

This is the Christian theological study of the Virgin Mary, mother of Jesus. Mariology looks to relate doctrine/dogma about Mary to other doctrine of the faith, like those concerning Jesus & notions about redemption, intercession, & grace.

Christian Mariology looks to place the role of the historic Mary in the context of Scripture, tradition, & the teachings of the Church of Mary. In terms of social history, Mariology may be broadly defined as the study of devotion to & thinking about Mary throughout the history of Christianity.

There’s a variety of Christian, & non-Christian, views on Mary as a figure ranging from the focus on the veneration of Mary in Roman Catholic Mariology to criticism of “mariolatry” as a form of idolatry.

As a field of theology, the most substantial developments in Mariology, & the founding of specific centers devoted to its study. In recent centuries, it’s taken place within the Roman Catholic Mariology.

The Eastern Orthodox ideas, & veneration, of Mary are integral to the rite as a whole (theotokos). They’re mostly expressed in liturgy. The veneration of Mary is said to permeate, in a way, the entire life of the Church as a “dimension” of dogma, as well as piety, of Christology as well as of Ecclesiology.

While similar to the Roman Catholic view, barring some minor differences, the Orthodox don’t see a need for a separate academic discipline of Mariology, as the Mother of God is seen as the self-evident apogee of God’s human creation. Apogee is the highest point in the development of something.

A significant number of Marian publications were written in the 20th century. Theologians Raimondo Spiazzi & Gabriel Roschini produced 2,500 & 900 publications respectively.

Over the centuries, Roman Catholic Mariology has been shaped by various forces ranging from sensus fidelium to Marian apparitions to the writing of saints to reflection by theologians & papal encyclicals. Encyclicals are papal letters sent to all bishops of the Roman Catholic Church.

Eastern Orthodox theology calls Mary “the Theotokos” or the God bearer. The virginal motherhood of Mary is at the center of Orthodox Mariology. The title of Ever Virgin is/was given to Mary. The Orthodox Mariology approach emphasizes the sublime holiness of Mary, her share in redemption, & her role as a mediator of grace.

Eastern Orthodox mariological thought goes back as far as St. John Damascene, who in the 8th century, wrote on the mediative role of Mary & one the Dormition of the Mother of God. Dormition is from the Latin “dormine” meaning to sleep. This is in reference to the death & subsequent assumption into Heaven to Mary, the mother of Jesus, in Eastern Christianity & some other churches.

In the 14th century, Orthodox Mariology began to flourish among Byzantine theologians who held a cosmic view of Mariology. This puts Jesus & Mary together at the center of the cosmos & saw them as the goal of world history.

More recently, the Eastern Orthodox Mariology achieved a renewal among 20th century theologians in Russia. Mary is the heart of the Church & the center of creation. Unlike the Catholic approach, Eastern Orthodox Mariology doesn’t support the Immaculate Conception Mary. Before the 20th century, Eastern Orthodox Mariology was almost entirely liturgical. It didn’t have any systematic presentation similar to Roman Catholic Mariology.

Protestant views on Mary differ between different denominations. Focus is generally on interpretations of Mary in the Bible, the Apostles’ Creed (which professes the Virgin Birth), & the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus in 431, which called Mary the Mother of God. Some early Protestants created Marian art & allowed limited forms of Marian veneration. Most Protestants today don’t share the veneration of Mary as practiced by Roman Catholics & Eastern Orthodox. Martin Luther, John Calvin, & Karl Barth’s views on Mary, & others have contributed to modern Protestant views.

Anglican Marian theology varies greatly from the Anglo-Catholic, which are very close to Roman Catholic views. The Anglican Church formally celebrates 6 Marian feast days: the Annunciation (March 25), Visitation (May 31), Day of Mary/Assumption or dormition (August 15), Nativity of Mary (September 8), Our Lady of Walsingham (October 15), & Mary’s Conception (December 8). Anglicans, with some other Protestants, teach the Marian dogmas of divine maternity & the virgin birth of Jesus. Even though there’s no systematic agreed upon Mariology among diverse parts of the Anglican Communion. The role of Mary as a mediator is accepted by some groups of modern Anglican theology.

Lutheran Mariology is informed by the Augsburg Confession & honors Mary as “the most blessed Mother of God, the most blessed Virgin Mary, & the Mother of Christ.” The Lutheran Churches, asserts the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary.

The Oriental Orthodox Churches regard Mary as the highest of saints & the Theotokos. They also celebrated a variety of Marian feast days.

In the Islamic perception of the Virgin Mary (known as Maryam in Arabic), she’s an extremely pious & chaste woman who miraculously gave birth, while still a virgin, to the prophet Jesus (called Isa in Arabic). Mary is the only woman named specifically in the Quran. The 19th chapter of the Quran, which is named after her, begins with 2 narrations of a “miraculous birth.”

The First Council of Ephesus, in 431, formally approved devotion to Mary as the Theotokos. Its use implies that Jesus, whom Mary gave birth to, is God. Nestorians preferred Christotokos, meaning “Christ-bearer” or “Mother of the Messiah”, not because they denied Jesus’ divinity. But because they believed that since God the Son, or Logos, existed before time & before Mary. Jesus took divinity from God the Father & humanity from His mom. So calling her “Mother of God” was confusing & perhaps heretical. Others at the council believed that denying the Theotokos title would carry with it the implication that Jesus wasn’t divine.

The Council of Ephesus also approved the creation of icons having the images of the Virgin & child. Devotion to Mary was already widespread before this point. This is reflected in the fresco depictions of Mother & child win the Roman catacombs.

Mary, as the 1st Christian saint & Mother of Jesus, was deemed to be a compassionate mediator between suffering mankind & her son, Jesus, who’s seen as a king & judge.

In the East, devotion to Mary blossomed in the 6th century under official patronage & imperial promotion of the Court of Constantinople. The popularity of Mary as an individual object of devotion only became in the 5th century with the appearance of apocryphal versions of her life, interest in her relics, & the 1st churches dedicated in her name. Like St. Maria Maggiore in Rome.

Since the writing of the apocryphal Protoevangelium of James, various beliefs have circulated concerning Mary’s own conception. This led, eventually, to the Roman Catholic Church dogma. It was formally established in the 19th century of Mary’s Immaculate Conception. This exempts her from original sin. This story goes: When Mary’s mom got pregnant with her, it was an Immaculate Conception. So when Mary was born, she was free from original sin. After Mary was born, she was sent to the Temple to live, so she wouldn’t get corrupted by the world. So Mary could be pure to have Jesus.

Roman Catholic & Eastern Orthodox teaching also extends to the end of Mary’s life ending with the Assumption of Mary. This was formally established as dogma in 1950 & the Dormition of the Mother of God respectively.

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The #ParkerLibrary has a new page on the #AugustineGospels, to celebrate entry into the #UNESCO UK #MemoryOfTheWorld Register. This extraordinary illustrated manuscript was owned by #StAugustine, sent to him by #PopeGregoryTheGreat to help in his mission to convert the Anglo-Saxons of England to Christianity.
https://corpus-christi-college.shorthandstories.com/unesco-enters-6th-century-augustine-gospels-into-the-2022-uk-memory-of-the-world-register-copy-2/index.html
The whole book may be viewed online at https://parker.stanford.edu/parker/catalog/mk707wk3350

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