Angkor Wat

This is a Theravada Buddhist temple complex & the largest religious complex in the world. It means “Temple City” or “City of Temples” in the Khmer language. It is located on a site measuring 162.6 hectares (401.8 acres; 1.6 km squared) within the ancient capital of Angkor. It was built between 1113 & 1150 during the reign of the Khmer King Suryavarman II. It originally was dedicated to the Hindu god, Vishnu.

From the late 13th century forward, the complex was/is a Buddhist temple & has remained an active center of Buddhist worship for centuries, specifically Theravada Buddhism. It’s a national symbol of Cambodia & shows up on the Cambodian flag. It’s also a UNESCO World Heritage Site, in 1992.

The temple’s architecture is a literal map of the Hindu universe. It’s commonly interpreted as a symbolic representation of Mount Meru. The 5 central towers represent the peaks of Mount Meru, the home of gods. While the massive moat represents the cosmic ocean surrounding the world.

Most Khmer temples face east. Angkor Wat faces the opposite way: west. In Hindu iconography, west is the direction associated with Vishnu. But it’s also the direction of the setting sun & death.

By the end of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII was at the helm. Angkor Wat was then dedicated to Buddhism. Because the queen, Indradevi, was a devout Mahayana Buddhist. She encouraged the king to convert.

In the 20th century, a considerable effort was launched to clear the plant overgrowth & restore the Temple following centuries of disrepair. Conservation d’Angkor (Angkor Conservancy) was established by the Ecole Francaise d’Extreme-Orient (EFEO) in 1908. This organization was disbanded in 1975.

The Conservation d’Angkor was responsible for the research, conservation, & restoration carried out at Angkor until the early 1970s. Major restoration works were undertaken in the 1960s.

Cambodia gained independence from France on November 9, 1853 & has controlled the Angkor Wat site ever since.

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ST. JOHN BAPTIST CHURCH in Cardiff is one of the city’s most important historic buildings, second only to Cardiff Castle. It dates back to around 1180 and was originally built as a small chapel for St. Mary’s Church. After being damaged in the early 1400s, it was rebuilt and later became Cardiff’s main place of worship in 1620, following a major flood in 1607.

#stjohnbaptistchurch #middleages #church #cardiff #wales #architecture #historicbuilding #12thcentury #history #stmaryschurch

The Banquet Hall - The decor is all about the Middle Ages, and the massive fireplace shows Robert, Earl of Gloucester, an illegitimate son of King Henry I and the guy who ruled Cardiff Castle in the 12th century, in battle.

#cardiffcastle #cardiff #wales #banquethall #middleages #earlofgloucester #KingHenryI #12thcentury #history #medieval

The Banquet Hall is the biggest room in the castle and sits in the oldest part of the building, which dates back to the 15th century.

But the ceiling and floors? They’re actually a Victorian twist on a fancy medieval hall, and it took almost 15 years to finish.

#cardiffcastle #cardiff #wales #banquethall #15thcentury #middleages #earlofgloucester #KingHenryI #12thcentury #empressmatilda #kingstephen #victorian

Humiliati

In Italian: Umiliati. This is an Italian religious order of men formed, probably, in the 12th century. It was suppressed by a papal bull in 1571. Though an associated order of women continued into the 20th century.

The origin of the order of Humiliati is obscure. According to some chroniclers, certain noblemen of Lombardy, taken prisoner by the Emperor Henry V (1081-1125) following a rebellion in the area, were taken as captives to Germany & after suffering the miseries of exile for some time, they assumed a penitential garb of grey & gave themselves up to works of charity & mortification. Whereupon the emperor, after receiving their pledges of future loyalty, permitted their return to Lombardy.

At this time, they were often called “Barettini,” because of their beret-shaped headdress. Their acquaintance with the German woolen manufacturers enabled them to introduce improved methods into Italy, thus giving a great drive to the industry, supplying the poor with employment & distributing their gains among those in want.

Returning to their own country, the Humiliati talked to St. Bernard. On his advice (1134), many of them with the consent of their wives, withdrew into a monastery founded in Milan.

Despite St. Bernard’s best attempts, the Humiliati had no fixed rule, at first. Their name “Humiliati” is said to have arisen from their very simple clothes, which were all of 1 color against the fashions of the day.

The fraternity spread quickly & gave rise to 2 new branches, a “Second Order” composed of women, & a “Third Order” composed of priests. The order of priests, once formed, claimed precedence over the other branches, & on the model of mendicant orders such as the Dominicans or Franciscans, was styled the “First Order.” Their original ashen habit was replaced by a white one.

On the advice of St. John of Meda, they hold to the Rule of the St. Benedict was adapted by him to suit the orders’ needs.

The “Chronicon anonymity Laudunensis Canonici” says that in 1178 a group of Lombards came to Rome with the intention of getting the Pope’s approval of the rule of life which they’d spontaneously chosen.

While continuing to live in their houses in the midst of their families, they wished to lead a more pious existence, abandon oaths & litigation, be content with modest dress, & live in a spirit of piety.

The Pope approved their resolve to live in humility & purity. But forbade them to hold gatherings or preach in public. The chronicler added that they broke the rules & were excommunicated.

The Chronican Urs pergense mentions the Humiliati as 1 of the 2 Waldensian sects & a decretal put into effect in 1184 by Pope Lucius III at the Council of Verona against all heretics condemns both the “Poor Men of Lyons” & “those who attribute to themselves falsely the name of Humiliati.”

A decretal is/are letters of a Pope that formulate decisions in ecclesiastical law of the Catholic Church.

In this state, they remained until 1201, when, upon presentation of their constitution, Pope Innocent III reconciled them with the Church, & reorganized them in conformity with their economic & religious customs. Also approved of the name of “Humiliati.”

This brought most of them back to the Church. But a number persevered in their former life under the direction of the Poor of Lyons (Waldensians). However, economic & religious difficulties aggravated long-felt dissension between the 2 groups.

In 1205, these non-reconciled Humiliati separated from the Lyonese Waldensians & formed a distinct group named the “Poor Lombards” (“Pauperes Lombardi”).

Pope Innocent III granted a rule to the lay branch as the “Third Order” that resembled the Regula de poenitentia of the Franciscan movement.

The Humiliati rule forbade vain oaths & taking God’s name in vain, allowed voluntary poverty & marriage, regulated pious exercises, & approved the solidarity which already existed among the members.

Unusual was the authorization to meet on Sundays to hear the words of a brother “of proved & prudent piety,” on condition that they didn’t discuss among themselves either the Articles of Faith or the Sacraments. Though some Waldensians were perhaps won back in Lombardy, others weren’t.

The Order grew quickly. Many of the members were declared Saints & Beati. It also formed trade associations among & played an important part in the civic life of every community in which it was established. It has left some church buildings still in use.

However, in time the gathering of material possessions & the limitations placed on the number of members led to laxity & serious abuses. At one time, there were only approximately 170 in the 94 monasteries.

Charles Borromeo, the Archbishop of Milan, was commissioned by Pope Pius IV to remedy the situation. The rigor with which he did this awakened such opposition among a minority that a conspiracy formed & 1 of the Humiliati, Girolamo Donati, called “Farina,” attempted to murder Charles.

This led to the execution of the principal conspirators by the civil authorities & the suppression of the Order for corruption by a bull of Pope Pius V of February 1571.

Their houses & possessions were given on other religious orders, including the Barnabites & Jesuits, or applied to charity.

The wives of the 1st Humiliati, who belonged to some of the principal families of Milan, also formed a community under Clara Blassoni. They were joined by so many others that it became necessary to open a 2nd convent, the members of which devoted themselves to the care of the lepers in a neighboring hospital, whence they were also known as Hospitallers of the Observance.

The number of their monasteries increased quickly. But the suppression of the male branch of the order, which had administered their temporal affairs, proved a heavy blow, involving in many cases the closing of monasteries. Though the congregation itself wasn’t affected by the Bull of Suppression.

The nuns recited the canonical Hours, fasted rigorously & engaged in other severe penitent practices, such as the “discipline” or self-inflicted whipping.

Some retained the ancient Breviary of the order, while other houses adopted the Roman Breviary. A breviary is the official prayer book of the Church. It has psalms, hymns, readings, & prayers recited at specific times throughout the day to praise God, structured into several “hours” like Morning Prayer (Lauds) & Evening Prayer (Vespers).

The habit consisted of a robe & scapular of white over a tunic of ashen gray, the veils are usually white, though in some houses there black. The lay sisters, who kept the name of Barettine, wore gray.

In the early 20th century, there were/are still 5 independent houses of Humiliati nuns in Italy.

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St. Anne

According to Christian tradition, St. Anne was the mom of the Virgin Mary, wife of St. Joachim, & was Jesus’ maternal grandma.

Her name isn’t in the Bible’s canonical Gospels. In writing, Anne’s name, & Joachim’s come from New Testament apocrypha. The Gospel of Thomas (written circa 150 AD) seems to be the earliest that mentions them. She’s mentioned in the Quran, but not by name.

The Immaculate Conception was eventually made dogma by the Catholic Church following an increased devotion to Anne in the 12th century. In Eastern Christianity dedications start as early as 6th century.

In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, Anne & Joachim are attributed to the title Ancestor of God. Both the Nativity of Mary & the Presentation of Mary are celebrated as 2 of the 12 Great Feasts of the Orthodox Church.

The Dormition of Anne is also a minor feast in Eastern Christianity. In Lutheranism, it’s believed that Martin Luther chose to enter religious life as an Augustinian friar after invoking St. Anne was jeopardized by lightning.

In the 4th century, & in the 15th century, a belief arose that Mary was conceived of Anne without original sin. The Immaculate Conception is often confused with the Annunciation of the Incarnation (Mary’s virgin birth of Jesus). The 13th century Speculum Maius includes information regarding the life of St. Anne.

In the Eastern church, the veneration of Anne herself may go back as far as circa 550, when Justinian built a church in Constantinople in her honor. The earliest pictorial sign of her veneration in the West in an 8th century fresco in the church of Santa Maria Antique, Rome.

The Feast of the Conception of the Virgin Mary had reached southern Italy by the 9th century. In the Latin Church, St. Anne wasn’t venerated. Except, perhaps, in the south of France, before the 13th century. A shrine at Douai (in northern France) was 1 of the early centers of devotion to St. Anne in the West.

The Anna Selbdritt was a type of iconography showing 3 generations of the “Holy Family,” St. Anne, the Virgin Mary, & Jesus (grandma, mom, son). This style of iconography emphasized the humanity of Jesus. It drew on the earlier conventions of the Seat of Wisdom. (The Seat of Wisdom is/are icons/sculptures that shows the Virgin Mary is seated on a throne with Jesus, as a kid, on her lap.) This was popular in northern Germany in the 1500s.

Two well-known shrines to St. Anne is that of Ste-Anne-d’Auray in Brittany (France) & that of Ste.-Anne-de-Beaupre near the city of Quebec. The number of pilgrims to the Basilica of Ste.-Anne-de-Beaupre is the greatest of St. Anne’s Feast Day (July 26), & the Sunday before the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (September 8). In 1892, Pope Leo XIII sent a relic of St. Anne to the church.

By the middle of the 7th century, a distinct feast day, the Conception of St. Anne (Maternity of Holy Anne) celebrating Mary by St. Anne, was observed at the Monastery of St. Sabas.

It’s now known in the Greek Orthodox Church as the feast of “The Conception by St. Anne of the Most Holy Theotokos.” It’s celebrated on December 9th. In the Catholic Church, the Feast of Saints Anne & Joachim is celebrated on July 26. The alleged relics of St. Anne was brought from the Holy Land to Constantinople in 710 & was kept there in the church of St. Sophia as late as 1333.

During the 12th & 13th centuries, returning crusaders & pilgrims from the East brought St. Anne’s relics to some churches, including most famously those at Apt, in Provence, Ghent, & Chartres. St. Anne’s relics have been preserved & venerated in the many cathedrals & monasteries dedicated to her name.

For example, in Austria, Canada, Germany, Italy, & Greece in the semi-autonomous Mount Athos, & the city of Katerini. Duren has been the main place of pilgrimage for Anne since 1506, when Pope Julius II decreed that her relics should be kept there, after they were stolen from the church of St. Stephen in Mainz.

The Church of St. Anne in Beit Guvrin National Park was built by the Byzantines & the crusaders in the 12th century. This is known in Arabic as Khirbet Sandahanna, the mound of Maresha being called Tell Sandahanna.

St. Anne is the patroness of unmarried women, housewives, women in labor or who want to be pregnant, grandmothers, moms, & educators. She’s also a patroness of horseback riders, cabinet-makers, & miners.

As the mom of Mary, this devotion to St. Anne as the patron of miners arises from the medieval comparison between Mary & Jesus & the precious metals: gold & silver. Anne’s womb was considered the source from which these precious metals were mined.

St. Anne is the patron saint of Brittany (France); Cuenca (Ecuador); Chinandega (Nicaragua); the Mi’kmaq people of Canada; Castelbuono (Sicily); Quebec (Canada); Santa Ana (California); Norwich (Connecticut); Detroit (Michigan); Adjunta (Puerto Rico); Santa Ana & Jucuaran (El Salvador); Berlin (New Hampshire); Santa Ana Pueblo, Seama, & Taos (New Mexico); Chiclana de la Frontera, Marsaskala, Tuadela, Atarfe & Fasnia (Spain); Town of Sta Ana Province of Pampanga, Molo, Iloilo City, Balasan; Iloilo, Hagnoy, Santa Ana, Taguig City, St. Anne Shrine, Malicboy, Pagbilao, Quezon, & Malinao, Albay (Philippines); Santana (Brazil); St. Anne (Illinois); Sainte Anne Island; Baie Sainte Anne & Praslin Island (Seychelles); Bukit Mertajam & Port Klang (Malaysia); Kl’ucove (Slovakia) & South Vietnam.

The parish church of Vatican City is Sant’ Anna dei Palafrenieri. There’s a shrine dedicated to St. Anne in the Woods in Bristol, United Kingdom.

Anne is also revered in Islam, recognized as a highly spiritual woman & as the mom of Mary. She’s not named in the Quran. She’s called “the wife of Imran.” The Quran describes her remaining childless until old age. One day, Anne saw a bird feeding its young while sitting in the shade of a tree, which awakened her desire to have kids of her own.

She prayed for a kid & eventually conceived. Imran, her husband, died before the kid was born. Anne expected the unborn kid to be a boy, so she vowed to dedicate “him” to isolation & service in the Second Temple.

Anne had a daughter (Mary) instead. Anne named her: Mary. Anne’s words upon delivering Mary reflect as a great mystic, realizing that while she’d had wanted a son, this daughter was God’s gift to her.

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The Kumari

Also known as Kumari Devi, or the Living Goddess. Kumari means young girl or unmarried in Sanskrit.

This is a uniquely Hindu & Buddhist practice. It’s primarily observed in Nepal & parts of adjacent India, which centers on the worship of a prepubescent girl as a living goddess & a manifestation of the divine feminine energy.

Shakti, the Indian religious worship monotheistic god’s multi-morphic avatar manifestation of genderless formless god into human forms including worshipping women as goddess in various forms such as worship of daughters as Kumari, wife as Lakshmi, women as skilled Saraswati & empowered Durga (who as Kali exterminates evil).

A key concept in Hinduism’s Shaktism tradition which venerates the feminine aspect of the genderless formless Absolute God Brahma. A Kumari is considered to be the living embodiment of the goddess Taleju Bhawani (a form of devi Durga), the venerable powerful manifestation of divine woman power, ingraining Hindus & Buddhists to treat their females, moms, sisters, wife, & daughters with respect as goddesses.

A Kumari is a prepubescent girl chosen from the Shakya clan of the Napali Newari Buddhist community. It’s believed that the girl is possessed by the goddess Taleju or Durga.

When her 1st period starts, it’s thought that the deity leaves her body. Serious illness or a major loss of blood from an injury also causes loss of deity. The chosen female child is typically worshipped from a prepubescent age, with her tenure as the divine vessel concluding with her 1st period, or a significant loss of blood (like from an injury). This signifies the departure of the goddess’s spirit.

The veneration of the young girl reflects the Hindu reverence for women as embodiments of the goddess. This girl is often chosen from the Newar Buddhist Shakya community, in the Kathmandu Valley.

There are several Kumaris throughout Nepal. Some cities have several, but the best known 1 is the Royal Kumari of Kathmandu. This particular Kumari lives in the Kumari Ghar, a palace in the center of the city.

The selection process for the Royal Kumari is especially rigorous. As of 2025, the Royal Kumari of Kathmandu is Aryatara Shakya, aged 2. She was selected in September 2025. Unika Bajracharya, was selected in April 2014 as the Kumari of Patan, is the 2nd most important living goddess.

The Kumari tradition is a particularly prevalent practice in the Kathmandu Valley. It is followed in the cities of Kathmandu, Lalitpur (a.k.a. Patan), Bhaktapur (a.k.a. Bhadgaun), Sankhu, & Bungamati.

This tradition is primarily rooted in the Malla Dynasty (12th-18th centuries), which ruled the Kathmandu Valley. The most prominent legend involves King Jaya Prakash Malla, the last Malla king of Kathmandu.

It’s said that the goddess Taleju would visit the king in his chamber to play a game of dice (tripasa). One night, the king looked at the goddess with lustful intent. Enraged, she disappeared, saying she wouldn’t ever return in her divine form. After the king begged for forgiveness, she agreed to return. But only by manifesting in a young, “pure” girl from the Shakya clan.

Historically, the Kumari was the source of a king’s right to rule. During the annual Indra Jatra festival, the king of Nepal would kneel before the Kumuri to get a tika (a forehead mark of blessing). Without this blessing, the king’s authority was considered spiritual void.

Even after the Shah dynasty overthrew the Mallas in 1768. Even after Nepal abolished its monarchy in 2008, the tradition persists, with the President of Nepal now receiving the blessing.

The word “Kumari” is derived from Sanskrit meaning “princess.” The festival is celebrated during Kumari Jatra, which follows the Indra Jatra religious ceremony. The procession is similar to Indra or Sakra, taking Indrani to his celestial home as his bride. The Kumari is also reversed & worshipped by some of Nepal’s Hindus.

The Kumari tradition is a rare bridge between Vajrayana Buddhism & Hinduism. The Kumari always chose the Newar community (the indigenous people of the Kathmandu Valley), specifically from the Shakya or Bajracharya class. Both of which are high-caste Buddhist lineages.

The worship of the goddess in a young girl represents the worship of divine consciousness spread over all creation. As the supreme goddess is thought to have manifested this entire cosmos out of her womb, she exists equally in animate as well as inanimate objects.

While worship of an idol represents the worship & recognition of supreme through inanimate materials, worship of a human represents veneration & recognition of the same supreme in conscious beings.

In the Shakta text Devi Mahatmyam, or Chandi, the goddess is said to have declared that she resides in all female living beings in this universe. The ritual of Kumari is based on this verse. But for the purpose of worshipping a goddess, a young girl is chosen over a mature woman because of her inherent purity & chastity.

The selection of a “Royal Kumari” (the most senior of the several Kumaris in the valley) is an exhaustive process led by high priests. The candidate must be between 3 & 5 years old & process the Battis Lakshan, or 32 physical perfections, which include:

• A neck like a conch shell
• Eyelashes like a cow
• Thighs like a deer
• A voice as clear as duck’s
• A body like a banyan tree
• Unblemished skin & no history of serious illness

During the festival of Dashain, the potential goddess must pass a “test of fearlessness.” She’s placed in a darkened room filled with the severed heads of 108 sacrificed buffaloes & goats. While men in masks dance & make terrifying noises. If the child stays calm & serene, it’s believed the spirit of Taleju has truly inhabited her.

Once chosen, the girl’s life changes immediately. She first moves into the Kumari Ghar. She must wear red, her hair is tied into a top knot, & a “fire eye” (agni chakchuu) is painted on her forehead. Her feet must never touch the “impure” ground. She’s carried on a palanquin or on the arms of her caretakers. While she grants darshan (divine glimpse) to followers, she has to stay expressionless. It’s believed that if she cries, laughs, or trembles, it portends disaster, illness, or death, for the person seeking the blessing.

Hindu scriptures, like the Jnanarnava Rudrayamala tantra, assigns names to a Kumari depending on her age:

• 1 year old: Sandhya, consort of Surya, the Sun god
• 2 years old: Saraswati, 1/3 part of the Tridevi
• 3 years old: Tridhamurti
• 4 years old: Kalika, a.k.a. Kali, consort of Shiva
• 5 years old: Subhaga
• 6 years old: Parvati/Uma, 1/3 part of the Tridevi
• 7 years old: Malini
• 8 years old: Kubjika
• 9 years old: Kaalasandarbha
• 10 years old: Aparajita
• 11 years old: Rudrani, consort of Rudra
• 12 years old: Bhairavi, 1 of the 10 avatars of the mother goddess
• 13 years old: Mahalakshmi, 1/3 part of the Tridevi
• 14 years old: Pithanayika
• 15 years old: Kshetragya
• 16 years old: Ambika, form of the supreme goddess of Hinduism

In Nepal, Kumaris are only worshipped for a day. The above names are only assigned while the ritual lasts, often a few hours. Usually one can’t be a Kumari after 16 years old because of their 1st period(s). In Bungamati, the Kumari reigns until her 1st baby teeth/tooth falls out.

Even today, a mom’s dream of a red serpent is believed to be an omen of her daughter’s future position as the Royal Kumari. The power of the Kumari is perceived to be strong that even a glimpse of her is thought to bring good fortune.

Crowds of people wait below the Kumari’s window in the Kumari Chowk, or courtyard, of her palace, hoping that she’ll pass by & glace down at them.

Some petitioners visit the Kumari in her chambers, where she sits on a gilded lion throne. Many visiting her are people suffering from blood or menstrual disorders since the Kumari is believed to have special power over such illnesses.

Petitioners usually bring gifts & food offerings to the Kumari, who gets them in silence. Upon arrival, the Kumari offers the petitioners her feet to touch, or kiss, as an act of devotion. During these audiences, the Kumari is watched closely.

Her actions interpreted as a prediction of the petitioners’ lives, such as:

• Crying or loud laughter: Serious illness or death
• Weeping or rubbing eyes: Impending death
• Trembling: Imprisonment
• Hand clapping: Reason to fear the king
• Picking at food offering: Financial losses

If the Kumari stays quiet & impassive throughout the audience, her followers leave elated.

Traditionally, the Kumari received no formal, mainstream education. This is because she’s widely considered to be omniscient. Modernization has made it necessary for her to have an education because she re-enters mortal life.

Kumaris are now allowed to attend public school & have a life inside the classroom that’s no different from that of other students. Many kumaris, like the Kumari of Bhaktapur, attend school. Others, like the main Kumari in Kathmandu, get their education through private tutors.

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If you are interested in the early blue & white knitted socks found in Egypt, there is exciting news. The Museum der Kulturen Basel has recently put their collection online, which includes quite a few examples of blue & white socks (or fragments thereof).
As the search engine is a bit tricky as yet, I put together a blog post that includes them and a few from other institutions: https://nalbound.com/2025/11/04/blue-and-white-knit-stockings/

#knitting #egypt #11thCentury #12thCentury #socks #textiles

The Assumption of the Virgin Mary

This is 1 of the 4 Marian dogmas of the Catholic Church. Pope Pius XII gave its definition on November 1, 1950 with his apostolic constitution named Munificentissimus Deus as the Assumption of Mary, body & soul, into Heaven. It’s celebrated on August 15th.

Munificentissimus Deus mentions several Holy Fathers, theologians, & Doctor of the Church who held to the Assumption of Mary are: Adrian I, Sergius I, Leo IV, John of Damascus, Amadeus of Lausanne, Modestus of Jerusalem, Anthony of Padua, Albertus Magnus, Thomas of Aquinas, Bonaventure, Bernardino of Siena, Robert Bellarmine, Francis de Sales, Peter Canisius, Francisco Suarez, etc.

It’s debated between theologians, clergy, & laypeople whether Mary actually died or whether she was raised up to eternal life without bodily death.

In Eastern Christianity, they have an equal belief called the Dormition of the Mother of God, or the “Falling Asleep of the Mother of God.” In Lutheran churches, August 15 is celebrated as the Feast of St. Mary. Some Anglican denominations observe August 15 under a variety of names, including the Feast of St. Mary the Virgin or the Falling Asleep of the Blessed Virgin Mary.

In the Passing of the Blessed Virgin Mary, this is credited to Joseph of Arimathea, 1 of the apostles (often pictured as Thomas the Apostle, of Doubting Thomas fame), wasn’t there at the time of Mary’s death. But he gets there late. This brought about a reopening of Mary’s tomb. Only Mary’s grave clothes were found in the empty tomb. Just like her son, Jesus. Subsequently, Mary drops her girdle down to the apostles, from Heaven, as proof of the event happening.

The feast was commanded for Constantinople on August 15 by Emperor Maurice in 600. About 50 years later, it was introduced in Rome & is mentioned in a papal decree of Sergius (687-701), who started a procession for the feast.

Pope Leo IV gave the feast a vigil & an octave to solemnise it above all others. An octave is the 8th day after a church festival, including the day of the festival. Pope Nicholas I placed it on a par with Christmas & Easter. On November 1, 1950, Pope Pius XII declared the Assumption of the Virgin Mary as a dogma of faith.

In the 12th century, a German nun Elisabeth of Schonau was allegedly granted visions of Mary & Jesus. This had a far-reaching influence on the Western Church’s tradition. In her work Visio de resurrectione beaten Virginia Mariae, she tells how Mary was assumed in body & soul into Heaven.

On May 1, 1950, Gilles Bouhours, who was a Marian seer, reported to Pope Pius XII a supposed message that the Virgin Mary would have ordered him to tell the Pope on the dogma of the Assumption of the Holy Virgin Mary.

It’s said that Pius XII asked God for a sign that could reassure him that the dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary was ACTUALLY wanted by God. This just happened to be during the Holy Year of 1950.

When Gilles communicated the message to Pius XII, the Pope considered this message the hoped for granted to Gilles by the Pope. Pius XII himself said the dogma of the Assumption of the body & soul of the Blessed Virgin Mary into Heaven.

Some Catholics believe that Mary passed away before being assumed. But they believe that she was miraculously resurrected before being assumed. This is a moralistic interpretation. Others believe she was assumed bodily into Heaven without dying first. This is an immoralistic interpretation. Either interpretation can be held legitimately by Catholics, with Eastern Catholics observing the Feast as the Dormition.

The Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary is celebrated in the Roman Catholic Church on August 15th. The Eastern Orthodox & Eastern Catholics celebrated the Dormition of the Mother of God on this date. This is also called the Dormition of the Theotokos, the “falling asleep of the Mother of God. It’s preceded by a 14-day period of fasting.

Eastern Christians believe Mary died a natural death, that he soul was received by Christ upon death, that her body was resurrected after her death, & that she was taken up into a Heaven bodily in anticipation of the general resurrection.

Views differ within Protestantism. They are those with a theology closer to Catholicism sometimes believing in a bodily assumption. Most Protestants don’t believe this.

The Lutheran Church kept the Feast of the Assumption of Mary after the Reformation. They designated August 15th as a lesser festival named “Mary, Mother of Our Lord” or “St. Mary, Mother of our Lord.”

While in Anglicanism, the Assumption of Mary is accepted by some & rejected by others. It disappeared from Anglican worship in 1549. It partially returned to Anglo-Catholic tradition during the 20th century under different names.

A Marian feast on August 15th is celebrated by the Church of England as a non-specific feast of the Blessed Virgin Mary. This feast is called by the Scottish Episcopal Church it’s a feast called “St. Mary the Virgin.” Other Anglican provinces have a feast of the Dormition. The Anglican Church of Canada’s Book of Common Prayer (1962) marks the day as the “Falling Asleep of the Blessed Virgin Mary.”

Assumption Day on August 15th is a nationwide public holiday in Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chile, Republic of Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, Croatia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cyprus, East Timor, France, Gabon, Greece, Georgia (the country), Republic of Guinea, Haiti, Italy, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Republic of North Macedonia, Madagascar, Malta, Mauritius, Monaco, Montenegro (Albanian Catholics), Paraguay, Philippines (Maragondon, Cavite), Portugal, Romania, Rwanda, Senegal, To go, Seychelles, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tahiti, & Vanuatu. It was also in Hungary until 1948.

It’s also a public holiday in parts of Germany (parts of Bavaria & Saarland), Switzerland (in 14 of 26 countries), & Bosnia & Herzegovina. In Guatemala, it is observed in Guatemala City & the town of Santa Maria Nebaj. Both cities claim her as their patron saint. In Costa Rica & parts of Belgium, the day is combined with Mother’s Day.

Prominent Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, & Oriental Orthodox countries in which Assumption Day is an important feast day but isn’t a public holiday recognized by the state include the Czech Republic, Ireland, Mexico, the Philippines, & Russia. In Bulgaria, the Feast of the Assumption is the biggest Eastern Orthodox celebration of the Holy Virgin. In Eastern Orthodox churches following the Julian Calendar, the feast day falls on August 28th.

In the Maronite church, the Assumption of Mary is known as the “Assumption of the Holy Mother of God.” It’s celebrated on August 15th.

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Tengu

Tengu literally means “Heavenly Dog.” These are a type of legendary creature found in the Shinto belief. They’re considered a type of yokai (supernatural beings) or Shinto kami (gods or spirits). The tengu were originally thought to take the forms of birds of prey & a monkey deity. They were traditionally shown with human, monkey, & avian/bird characteristics.

Sarutahiko Okami is considered to be the original model for Konoha-Tengu. This is a supernatural creature with a red face & long nose. Today, this is widely considered the tengu’s defining characteristics in popular imagination.

He’s the Shinto monkey deity who’s said to shed light on Heaven & Earth. Some experts theorize that Sarutahiko was a sun god worshipped in the Ise region prior to the popularization of Amaterasu.

Buddhism had long held that the Tengu were unruly demons & harbingers of war. Their image gradually softened into 1 of protective, if still dangerous spirits of the mountains & forests. Tengu is associated with the ascetic practice of Shugendo. They’re usually shown in the clothes of its followers, the yamabushi.

The tengu appears in a variety of shapes in art. It usually falls somewhere in between a large, monstrous bird & a wholly anthropomorphized being. It’s often with a red face or an unusually large or long nose.

The early representations of tengu show them as kite-like beings who can take a human-like form. Often they keep avian/bird wings, heads, or beaks. This feature allies with the Sarutahiko Okami. Sarutahiko Okami is described in the 720 CE text, the Nihon Shoki, with a similar nose measuring 7 hand-spans in length. In village festivals, the 2 figures are often nose-portrayed with identical red phallic-nosed mask designs.

Tengu are often shown as taking the facade of a priest. Beginning in the 13th century, tengu came to be associated in particular yamabushi. These were the mountain ascetics who practiced/practices Shugendo.

This eventually found its way into Japanese art, where tengu are frequently shown in the yamabushi’s unique costume. The costume included uncommon headwear called the tokin & a pompom sash (yuigesa). Because of their priestly aesthetic, they’re often shown employing the khakkhara. This is a distinct staff used by Buddhist monks, called a shakujo in Japanese. Tengu are commonly shown holding a magical feather fan (hauchiwa).

In folk tales, these fans sometimes can grow or shrink a person’s nose. But usually they’ve attributed the power to stir up great winds.

The Konjaku Monogatarishu is a collection of stories, that was published in the late Heian period. It has in it some of the earliest tales of the tengu. These tengu are troublesome opponents of Buddhism, who mislead the pious with false images of the Buddha, carrying off monks, & drop them in remote places, possess women in an attempt to tempt holy men, rob temples, & gift those who worship them with unholy power. They often disguise themselves as priests as priests or nuns. But their true form seems to be that of a kite.

One infamous tengu from the 12th century was himself the ghost of an emperor. The Hogen Monogatari tells the story of Emperor Sutoku. He was forced by his father to abandon the throne. When he later raised the Hogan Rebellion to take back the country from Emperor Go-Shirakawa, he was defeated & exiled to Sanuki Province in Shikoku.

According to legend, he died in torment, having shown to haunt the nation of Japan as a great demon. Thus becoming a fearsome tengu with long nails & eyes, like a kite’s.

In stories from the 13th century, tengu began to abduct young boys, as well as priests that they’ve always targeted. The boys returned, while the priests would be found tied to the top of the trees or other high places. All of the tengu’s victims would come back in a state near death or madness. Sometimes after having been tricked into eating animal dung/poop.

The tengu of this period were frequently conceived of as the ghosts of the arrogant. As the creatures have become associated with vanity & pride. Today, the Japanese expression tengu ni naru (“becoming a tengu”) is still used to describe a conceited person.

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