“Stercus accidit”*…

As we try to understand the rifts afflicting our nation and world, many turn to Marx and his framework of class. But in a provocative essay, Catherine Nichols suggests that it was David Hume (in an 1752 essay that identified the unfettering of wealth from land) who identified the origin of our political divisions…

Describing the political map in terms of Left and Right is an accepted convention all over the world, almost to the point of cliché. Yet it is surprisingly complicated to explain whose interests lie on each side of this spectrum. For example, if the Left supports the interests of workers over the interests of employers, why are Left-leaning regions of the United States and elsewhere in the world among the richest? When Japan and South Korea sought to become economic powerhouses in the later 20th century, they adopted Leftist policies such as strong public education, universal healthcare and increased gender equality – if countries seeking to compete in capitalist arenas adopt broadly Leftist policies, then how do we explain why Leftists are always talking about overthrowing capitalism? And if the Left is somehow both the party of workers’ rights and the party of material wealth, then whose interests are supported by the Right? Given such contradictions, how did these terms become so central to modern politics?

The terms ‘left’ and ‘right’ come from the seating arrangements in the National Assembly during the French Revolution, where the combatants used the medieval estate groupings to define their battle lines. According to their writings, land-owning aristocrats (the Second Estate) were the party of the Right, while the interests of nearly everyone else (the Third Estate) belonged to the Left. This Third Estate included peasants working for the landowners but also every other kind of business owner and worker. Decades later, Karl Marx offered a different analysis of capitalism: he put owners of both land and businesses together on one side (the bourgeoisie), while grouping workers from fields and factories on the other side (the proletariat) in a single, world-wide class struggle. The trouble with both these ways of parsing Left and Right is that voting patterns never seem to line up with class. Both historic analyses leave us with questions about the contemporary world – and not just the paradox of why so many Left-leaning places are so rich. Why, for example, do working-class conservatives appear to vote against their material interests, year in and year out, across generations?

The 18th-century philosopher and political theorist David Hume had answers to these questions, though he was writing decades before the French Revolution. While his essay ‘Of Public Credit’ (1752) was a warning about the dangers of Britain’s increasing reliance on debt financing, his apocalyptic vision of the future turned out to describe some features of our current political map surprisingly well. Hume was writing because he believed that debt financing had the power to upend Europe’s traditional power structure and culture by creating a new source of money divorced from tradition or responsibility: stocks and bonds. Unlike land, anyone with some cash could buy war bonds and get an immediate passive income in the form of interest. This was the thin end of the wedge caused by the debt financing that Hume believed was destroying every part of society. The governments of antiquity, Hume argued, saved money to use in battle and then waged wars in self-defence, or else to expand their territory. But the British had invented a new form of warfare that Hume saw no precedent for, even in the merchant states of Nicollò Machiavelli’s Italy: war for trade, funded with money borrowed from private stockholders…

[Nichols unpacks Hume’s observations (centrally, that three groups with stakes in the status quo, heretability, and the sanctity of “family and family hierarchy”tradition”– landowners, aging parents, and want to preserve old power structures, including the family– and traces their relevance, from Hume’s time to ours…]

… There are many reasons for people aligning Right or Left, which is why analyses of class and material interests fall short of describing the realities of people’s politics. Hume foresaw that these specific groups would resent the economic sea-change of the 18th century – and he was correct. Many people would rather have land and power than money and liberty.

Still, the power of the Right hasn’t doomed the Left – no more than the Spanish Inquisition doomed the rise of the Left in 18th-century England and France. As long as governments want to keep the value of their currencies from falling, someone in their ranks will be using the methods of the Left and inventiveness that brought us everything from our banking system to gay marriage. We don’t need to resurrect communism or focus narrowly on class, following Marx. The experiments are far from over, and we should remember that the Left is generally where money comes from in modern times. We give away too much power when we forget it…

Rethinking Right and Left: “Landholder vs stockholder,” from @catherinenichols.bsky.social in @aeon.co.

As for how it’s going at the moment (and further to Hume and the quote in this post’s title), see: “MAGA’s Betrayal of Small Business,” from @pkrugman.bsky.social.

* “shit happens”– often attributed to David Hume, reflecting his skeptical view that human understanding, particularly of cause-and-effect, is limited to habitual belief from experience, implying that unforeseen, messy outcomes (“shit”) inevitably occur in life despite our reasoning.

###

As we sort the Whigs from the Tories, we might recall that it was on this date 1656 that Blaise Pascal (writing under the pseudonym Louis de Montalte) published the first of his Provential Letters (Lettres provinciales), a series of eighteen polemical letters using humor to attack Jesuits for their use of  casuistry and their moral laxity. Though the Letters were a popular success, they had little immediate effect on politics or the clergy. But they influenced later French writers like Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau and ultimately persuaded Pope Alexander to condemn “laxity” in the church and order a revision of casuistic texts.

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Charles Borromeo

We’re delving into Charles Borromeo because there’s a church named after him in our founder’s hometown. We hope you enjoy this read.

His name in Italian is: Carlo Borromeo. In Latin, his name: Carolus Borromeus. He was an Italian Catholic prelate who served as the Archbishop of Milan from 1564-1584. He became a cardinal in 1560. A prelate is a high-ranking cleric with special jurisdiction or authority, essentially anyone exercising public power or holding a position of prominence above ordinary clergy.

Charles founded the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine together with St. Ignatius of Loyola & St. Philip Neri. In this role, he was responsible for significant reforms in the Catholic Church. Including the founding of seminaries for the education of priests. He was canonized in 1610 & his feast day is November 4.

Charles was a descendant of nobility. The Borromeo family was 1 of the most ancient & wealthiest in Lombardy. The family coat of arms included the Borromean rings, sometimes taken to symbolize the Holy Trinity.

Charles’ dad, Gilbert, was the Count of Arona. His mom, Margaret, was a member of the Milanese branch of the House of Medici. He was the 2nd son in a family of 6 kids. He was born in the castle of Arona on Lake Maggiore 36 miles from Milan on October 2, 1538.

Charles received the tonsure when he was about 12 years old. At this time, his paternal uncle (dad’s brother), Giulio Cesare Borromeo turned over to him the income from the rich Benedictine abbey of Saints Gratinian & Felin, 1 of the ancient requirements of the family.

Charles let his dad know on no uncertain terms that all revenues from the abbey beyond what was required to prepare him for a career in the church belonged to the poor & couldn’t be applied to secular use.

Charles went to the University of Pavia. He applied himself to the study of civil & canon law. Because of a slight speech impediment, he was thought of as slow but his thoroughness & industry meant that he made fast progress.

In 1554, his dad died. Although he had an older brother, Count Federico, he was requested by the family to take the management of their domestic affairs. After a time, he restarted his studies. On December 6, 1559, he earned a doctorate in canon & civil law.

On December 25, 1559, Charles’ uncle, Cardinal Giovanni Angelo Medici, was elected as Pope Pius IV. The newly elected Pope requested his nephew to go to Rome. On January 13, 1560, Pope Pius IV appointed him as protonotary apostolic. Protonotary apostolic is the title for a member of the highest non-episcopal college of prelates in Roman Curia, or outside Rome.

Shortly after, on January 31, 1560, the Pope made him a cardinal. This made Charles a cardinal-nephew. He was entrusted with both the public & the privy seal of the ecclesiastical state. A cardinal-nephew was a high-ranking Cardinal in the Catholic Church. Usually the pope’s actual nephew or another close relative(s), who served as the pontiff’s chief assistant & confidant. He was also brought into the government of Papal States & appointed a supervisor of the Franciscans, Carmelites, & Knights of Malta.

During his 4 years in Rome, Charles lived in austerity, required the Roman Curia to wear black (The Roman Curia is the administrative arm of the Holy See.), & established an academy of learned persons, the Academy of the Vatican Knights.

Charles organized the 3rd, & last, session of the Council of Trent, in 1562-63. He had a large hand in making the Tridentine Catechism (Catechismus Romanus). In 1561, Charles founded & endowed a college at Pavia. Today the college is known as Almo Collegio Borromeo. Charles dedicated the college to Justina of Padua.

On November 19, 1562, Charles’ older brother, Federico, suddenly died. His family urged Charles to seek permission to return to the laity (laicization), to marry & have kids so that the family name wouldn’t become extinct. But he decided not to leave the ecclesiastic state.

His brother’s death, along with his contacts (with the Jesuits, the Theatines, & the example of bishops such as Bartholomew of Braga) were causes of the conversion Charles towards a more strict & operative Christian life. His aim became to put into practice the dignity & duties of the bishop as drafted by the Council of Trent.

After the death of his uncle, Pope Pius IV (1566), Charles sent a galley (a type of ship) to get Cardinal Ugo Boncompagni, the Nuncio of Spain. The nuncio (or apostolic nuncio) is the Pope’s personal ambassador (like an embassy’s ambassador) to a country & plays a key role in appointing bishops.

But the Cardinal didn’t arrive in time to be considered at the conclave. Charles reached an agreement with Alessandro Farnese, who held a significant number of conclave votes, to support Antonio Ghislieri (who was rumored to have the support of King Philip II of Spain). Ghislieri was elected Pope & took the name: Pius V.

He devoted himself to the reformation of his diocese which had deteriorated in practice owing to the 80-year absence of previous archbishops. Milan was the largest archdiocese in Italy at the time, with more than 3,000 clergy & 800,000 people. Both its clergy & laity had drifted from church teaching. The selling of indulgences & ecclesiastical positions was prevalent.

Charles believed that abuses in the church arose from ignorant clergy. His emphasis on Catholic learning greatly increased the preparation of men for the priesthood & benefited their congregations.

He founded the fraternity of Oblates of St. Ambrose (a society of secular men who didn’t take orders), but devoted themselves to the church & followed a discipline of monastic prayers & study. The new archbishop’s efforts for catechesis & the instruction of youth included the initiation of the 1st Sunday School classes & the work of the Confraternity for Christian Doctrine.

Charles’ diocesan reforms faced opposition from several religious orders. Particularly that of the Humiliati (Brothers of Humility), a penitential order which owned some 90 monasteries. Some members of that society formed a conspiracy against his life.

A shot was fired at him with an arquebus in the archepiscopal chapel. His survival was considered miraculous.

Even though the Diet of Ilanz of 1524 & 1526 had proclaimed freedom of worship in the 3 Leagues, Charles repressed Protestantism in the Swiss valleys. During his pastoral visit to the region, 150 people were arrested for practicing witchcraft. 11 women & the provost were condemned by the civil authorities to be burned alive.

Reacting to the pressure of the Protestant Reformation, Charles encouraged Ludwig Pfyffer in his development of the “Golden League” but didn’t live to see its formation in 1586.

Based in Lucerne, the organization (also called the Borromean League) linked activities of several Swiss Catholic cantons of Switzerland. This became the center of Catholic Counter-Reformation efforts & caused the break-up of Appenzell canton along religious lines.

Following his departure from this mortal coil, devotion to Charles grew quickly & continued to grow. The Milanese memorializes his anniversary as though he were already a saint. Supporters in a number of cities collected documentation to support his canonization.

In 1602, Pope Clement VIII beatified Charles. 2 years later, his “case” was sent to the Congregation of Rites. On November 1, 1610, Pope Paul V canonized Charles. 3 years later, the church added his feast day to the General Roman Calendar for celebration on November 4.

Along with Guarinus of Palestrina & Anselm of Lucca, he’s 1 of only 2-3 cardinal-nephews to have been canonized. Charles Borromeo is the patron saint of bishops; catechists; seminarians; against ulcers; apple orchards; bishops; catechumens; colic; intestinal disorders; Lombardy, Italy; Monterey, California; cardinals; seminarians; spiritual directors; spiritual leaders; starch makers; stomach diseases; & Sao Carlos (Brazil).

Charles’ emblem is the Latin word humilitas (humility), which is a portion of the Borromeo shield. He’s usually represented in art in his robes, barefoot, carrying the cross as archbishop, a rope around his neck and 1 hand raised in blessing. Thus recalling his work during the plague.

A large number of churches dedicated to St. Charles Borromeo exist in: Austria; Sheffield, England; Scotland; Belgium; Italy; Serbia; Poland; Switzerland; Vienna; Ireland; England; Indiana; Louisiana; Canada, California; Florida; Illinois; New York; Texas; Missouri; Minnesota; North Dakota; Ohio; Maryland; Massachusetts; Nebraska; New Jersey; North Carolina; Pennsylvania; Rhode Island; Virginia; Washington; Oklahoma; New Hampshire; Argentina; Brazil; Peru; Uruguay; Venezuela; & Chile.

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Humiliati

In Italian: Umiliati. This is an Italian religious order of men formed, probably, in the 12th century. It was suppressed by a papal bull in 1571. Though an associated order of women continued into the 20th century.

The origin of the order of Humiliati is obscure. According to some chroniclers, certain noblemen of Lombardy, taken prisoner by the Emperor Henry V (1081-1125) following a rebellion in the area, were taken as captives to Germany & after suffering the miseries of exile for some time, they assumed a penitential garb of grey & gave themselves up to works of charity & mortification. Whereupon the emperor, after receiving their pledges of future loyalty, permitted their return to Lombardy.

At this time, they were often called “Barettini,” because of their beret-shaped headdress. Their acquaintance with the German woolen manufacturers enabled them to introduce improved methods into Italy, thus giving a great drive to the industry, supplying the poor with employment & distributing their gains among those in want.

Returning to their own country, the Humiliati talked to St. Bernard. On his advice (1134), many of them with the consent of their wives, withdrew into a monastery founded in Milan.

Despite St. Bernard’s best attempts, the Humiliati had no fixed rule, at first. Their name “Humiliati” is said to have arisen from their very simple clothes, which were all of 1 color against the fashions of the day.

The fraternity spread quickly & gave rise to 2 new branches, a “Second Order” composed of women, & a “Third Order” composed of priests. The order of priests, once formed, claimed precedence over the other branches, & on the model of mendicant orders such as the Dominicans or Franciscans, was styled the “First Order.” Their original ashen habit was replaced by a white one.

On the advice of St. John of Meda, they hold to the Rule of the St. Benedict was adapted by him to suit the orders’ needs.

The “Chronicon anonymity Laudunensis Canonici” says that in 1178 a group of Lombards came to Rome with the intention of getting the Pope’s approval of the rule of life which they’d spontaneously chosen.

While continuing to live in their houses in the midst of their families, they wished to lead a more pious existence, abandon oaths & litigation, be content with modest dress, & live in a spirit of piety.

The Pope approved their resolve to live in humility & purity. But forbade them to hold gatherings or preach in public. The chronicler added that they broke the rules & were excommunicated.

The Chronican Urs pergense mentions the Humiliati as 1 of the 2 Waldensian sects & a decretal put into effect in 1184 by Pope Lucius III at the Council of Verona against all heretics condemns both the “Poor Men of Lyons” & “those who attribute to themselves falsely the name of Humiliati.”

A decretal is/are letters of a Pope that formulate decisions in ecclesiastical law of the Catholic Church.

In this state, they remained until 1201, when, upon presentation of their constitution, Pope Innocent III reconciled them with the Church, & reorganized them in conformity with their economic & religious customs. Also approved of the name of “Humiliati.”

This brought most of them back to the Church. But a number persevered in their former life under the direction of the Poor of Lyons (Waldensians). However, economic & religious difficulties aggravated long-felt dissension between the 2 groups.

In 1205, these non-reconciled Humiliati separated from the Lyonese Waldensians & formed a distinct group named the “Poor Lombards” (“Pauperes Lombardi”).

Pope Innocent III granted a rule to the lay branch as the “Third Order” that resembled the Regula de poenitentia of the Franciscan movement.

The Humiliati rule forbade vain oaths & taking God’s name in vain, allowed voluntary poverty & marriage, regulated pious exercises, & approved the solidarity which already existed among the members.

Unusual was the authorization to meet on Sundays to hear the words of a brother “of proved & prudent piety,” on condition that they didn’t discuss among themselves either the Articles of Faith or the Sacraments. Though some Waldensians were perhaps won back in Lombardy, others weren’t.

The Order grew quickly. Many of the members were declared Saints & Beati. It also formed trade associations among & played an important part in the civic life of every community in which it was established. It has left some church buildings still in use.

However, in time the gathering of material possessions & the limitations placed on the number of members led to laxity & serious abuses. At one time, there were only approximately 170 in the 94 monasteries.

Charles Borromeo, the Archbishop of Milan, was commissioned by Pope Pius IV to remedy the situation. The rigor with which he did this awakened such opposition among a minority that a conspiracy formed & 1 of the Humiliati, Girolamo Donati, called “Farina,” attempted to murder Charles.

This led to the execution of the principal conspirators by the civil authorities & the suppression of the Order for corruption by a bull of Pope Pius V of February 1571.

Their houses & possessions were given on other religious orders, including the Barnabites & Jesuits, or applied to charity.

The wives of the 1st Humiliati, who belonged to some of the principal families of Milan, also formed a community under Clara Blassoni. They were joined by so many others that it became necessary to open a 2nd convent, the members of which devoted themselves to the care of the lepers in a neighboring hospital, whence they were also known as Hospitallers of the Observance.

The number of their monasteries increased quickly. But the suppression of the male branch of the order, which had administered their temporal affairs, proved a heavy blow, involving in many cases the closing of monasteries. Though the congregation itself wasn’t affected by the Bull of Suppression.

The nuns recited the canonical Hours, fasted rigorously & engaged in other severe penitent practices, such as the “discipline” or self-inflicted whipping.

Some retained the ancient Breviary of the order, while other houses adopted the Roman Breviary. A breviary is the official prayer book of the Church. It has psalms, hymns, readings, & prayers recited at specific times throughout the day to praise God, structured into several “hours” like Morning Prayer (Lauds) & Evening Prayer (Vespers).

The habit consisted of a robe & scapular of white over a tunic of ashen gray, the veils are usually white, though in some houses there black. The lay sisters, who kept the name of Barettine, wore gray.

In the early 20th century, there were/are still 5 independent houses of Humiliati nuns in Italy.

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8 Dec 1598: Bl. Dominic Collins joins the #Jesuits in Santiago de Compostela #otd

Executed at #Youghal on 31 Oct 1602 he addressed the crowd in #Spanish, #Irish and #English, saying he had come to #Ireland to defend the Catholic faith