Het Forum van Augustus (2)

Wie het Augustusforum, waaraan ik ook het vorige blogje wijdde, betrad vanaf het Forum van Caesar, zag op het plein eerst een beeld van keizer Augustus in een vierspan. Daar achter verrees de vijfendertig meter hoge tempel van Mars de Wreker. De onverwachte aanblik van zo’n groot bouwwerk moet enorme indruk hebben gemaakt, zeker als het witte Carraramarmer op een zomermiddag fonkelde in de zon.

Aan de voet van de ook nu nog imponerende trap stonden fonteinen, waarvan tegenwoordig alleen lage muurtjes resteren die amper boven het gras uitsteken. Hier stonden ook enkele standbeelden die ooit van Alexander de Grote waren geweest. In het gevelveld van de tempel lag links een beeld van Palatinus (de personificatie van de heuvel waarop Rome was ontstaan), daarop volgde een zittende Romulus die het voorteken van de twaalf gieren gadesloeg (een voorteken dat ook Octavianus eens zei te hebben ontvangen), en middenin stonden een schaars geklede Venus en een stoere Mars. Rechts van hem stond Victoria, zat Roma en lag de riviergod Tiber. Door deze verwijzingen naar de stichtingssage presenteerde Augustus zich als nieuwe Romulus.

De binnenkant van de tempel was een bont geheel. De vloer bestond uit alle soorten marmer van het Middellandse-Zee-gebied en dat bracht de omvang van het rijk en dus de macht van de heerser in herinnering. Achterin stond op een sokkel van enkele nog altijd zichtbare treden van Egyptisch albast een beeldengroep: een baardige Mars leunde op een lans, met aan zijn zijde een elegant geklede Venus die van haar zoontje Amor het zwaard van haar geliefde kreeg aangereikt. De groep kan worden gereconstrueerd aan de hand van een reliëf dat is gevonden in Algiers, maar ik kan me niet herinneren dat ik het heb gezien in het plaatselijke museum.

Aan weerszijden stonden de veldtekens die ooit door vijanden waren buit gemaakt maar later heroverd. Zo waren hier de in 53 v.Chr. door de Parthen op Crassus veroverde standaards, die ten tijde van Augustus waren teruggegeven aan zijn adoptiefzoon Tiberius. (Dit is de scène die is afgebeeld op het borstpantser van de Augustus van Primaporta.) Waarschijnlijk waren hier ook de adelaars te zien van het Zeventiende, het Achttiende en het Negentiende Legioen te zien, die waren verloren tijdens en heroverd na de slag in het Teutoburgerwoud.

Het forum had verschillende functies. Sommige kwamen we al tegen in het vorige blogje: rechtspraak en oorlogszaken. Uit andere bronnen weten we dat dit de plaats was waar jonge mannen werden ingeschreven in het dienstplichtigenregister (hoewel ze zelden werden opgeroepen), waar verslagen vijanden hun eed van trouw aflegden en waar de ridders hun jaarlijkse diner hadden. Augustus’ biograaf Suetonius vermeldt een incident:

Eens woonde keizer Claudius op het Forum van Augustus een rechtszitting bij toen hij de geur opsnoof van een maaltijd die in de tempel van Mars daar vlakbij werd klaargemaakt. Hij verliet de zitting, begaf zich naar de priesters en ging bij hen aan tafel.noot Suetonius, Claudius 33.1; vert. Den Hengst.

Achter de galerijen aan weerszijden van het plein lagen grote, halfronde ruimtes, zogenaamde exedra’s. Tegenwoordig resteren er twee, maar er waren er aanvankelijk nog twee, gelegen in de richting van het Forum van Caesar. Ze zijn gesloopt om ruimte te creëren voor het Forum Transitorium en het Trajanusforum.

De nissen in de muren van de exedra’s boden plaats aan standbeelden. Die in de noordwestelijke galerij stelden Augustus’ voorouders voor: middenin de nu zichtbare exedra stond een beeld van de legendarische voorouder Aeneas, met daaromheen alle andere voorouders, de  Julii. Dit was niets nieuws: elke Romeinse familie die het zich kon permitteren, bewaarde de portretten van haar overledenen en toonde zo haar geschiedenis. De omvang van de portretgalerij was een van de zaken waarin de rivaliteit tussen de aristocratische geslachten tot uiting kwam, en het spreekt vanzelf dat de galerij in het Augustusforum moest tonen dat de keizerlijke familie iedereen overtrof.

De exedra aan de overzijde vormde een “hall of fame” van voorname Romeinen uit heden en verleden. Centraal stond het beeld van – alweer – Romulus, geflankeerd door succesvolle generaals, bekende politici en de principes van de Senaat. De laatsten waren zeer belangrijk in de augusteïsche propaganda: door hen hier af te beelden, suggereerde Romes eerste keizer dat zijn eigen alleenheerschappij eigenlijk heel gewoon was – er waren gedurende de hele republikeinse periode dominante politici geweest.

Augustus bepaalde dat alle generaals die in de toekomst een triomftocht hielden of zogeheten triomfale eretekenen kregen, recht hadden op een standbeeld. Toen twee exedra’s werden gesloopt, werden de daar geplaatste beelden overgebracht naar de nieuwe fora: zowel het Forum Transitorium als het Trajanusforum hadden vergelijkbare galerijen. Zo gaf Augustus elke voorname Romein de ruimte en presenteerde hij zijn alleenheerschappij alsof ze paste binnen de republikeinse staatsinrichting. Het forum was echter ook bedoeld als persoonlijk monument. Niet voor niets stond zijn standbeeld midden op het plein. Er was nog een tweede beeld, dat zijn persoonlijke beschermgod voorstelde. Het was geplaatst in een apart vertrek in de noordhoek van het forum. Met een hoogte van tien meter was het de oudste van de colossi die Rome in de keizertijd sierden.

De veelkleurige vloer van dit vertrek is een kwart eeuw geleden gerestaureerd. In de muurdecoratie waren twee afbeeldingen opgenomen van Alexander de Grote, vervaardigd door de beroemdste schilder uit de Oudheid, Apelles (ca. 375-ca. 315). Augustus identificeerde zich graag met de Macedoniër, die net als hij Egypte had veroverd en zich als god had laten vereren. Zó ver kon Augustus niet gaan, maar het feit dat het standbeeld van zijn beschermgod groter was dan dat van Mars, zei genoeg.

#Aeneas #AlexanderDeGrote #Apelles #Augustus #Claudius #ForumVanAugustus #ForumVanCaesar #ForumVanTrajanus #Keizerfora #LegioXIX #LegioXVII #LegioXVIII #Mars #Octavianus #Rome #Romulus #slagInHetTeutoburgerwoud #Suetonius

Apotheosis

This is also called divinization or deification. It’s from the Latin deificato, meaning “making divine.” This is the glorification of a subject to divine levels & commonly, the treatment of a human being, any other living thing, or an abstract idea in the likeness of a deity.

The original sense of apotheosis relates to religion & is the subject of many works of art. Figuratively “apotheosis” may be used in almost any context for “the deification, glorification, or exaltation of a principle, practice, etc.” So normally attached to an abstraction of some sort.

In religion, apotheosis was a feature of many religions in the ancient world. Some that are active today. It requires a belief that there’s a possibility of newly created God’s, so a polytheistic belief system.

The Abrahamic religions of Christianity, Islam, & Judaism don’t allow this. Though many recognize minor sacred categories such as saints. They’re created by a process called canonization. In Christian theology, there’s a concept of the faithful becoming god-like, called divinization or in Eastern Christianity theosis.

In Hinduism, there’s some range for new deities. A human may be deified by becoming regarded as an avatar of an established deity, usually a major one, or by being regarded as a new, independent deity (usually a minor one), or a mix of the 2.

In art, an apotheosis scene usually shows the subject in the Heavens or rising towards them. They’re often partnered by a number of angels, putti, personifications of virtues, or similar figures.

Especially from Baroque art onwards apotheosis scenes may show rulers, generals, or artists purely as an honorific symbol. In many cases, the “religious” context is classical Greco-Roman pagan religion, like The Apotheosis of Voltaire, which features Apollo. The Apotheosis of Washington (1865) sits high in the dome of the United States of America Capitol Building is another example. Personification of places or abstractions are also shown receiving an apotheosis. The classic composition was suited for artistic placement on ceilings or inside domes.

Before the Hellenistic period, imperial cults were known in ancient Egypt (pharaohs) & Mesopotamia (from Naran-Sin through Hammurabi). In the New Kingdom of Egypt, all deceased pharaohs were deified as the god Osiris, having been identified as Horus while on the throne. They were sometimes referred to as the “son” of other various deities.

The architect Imhotep was defied after his passing away. Though the process seems to have been gradual. This took over 1,000 years, by which time he had become associated with medicine. About a dozen non-royal ancient Egyptians became regarded as deities.

Ancient Greek & Roman religions have many characters who were born as humans but became gods. Like Disney’s Hercules. They’re usually made divine by 1 of the main deities, the 12 Olympians. In the Roman story of Cupid & Psyche, Zeus gave the ambrosia of the gods to the mortal Psyche. This transformed her into a goddess herself.

In the case of the Hellenistic queen Berenice II of Egypt was deified like other rulers of the Ptolemaic dynasty. The court dispersed a myth that her hair, that was cut off to fulfill a vow, had its own apotheosis before becoming the Coma Berenices, a group of stars that still bear her name.

In the Greek world, the 1st leader who granted himself diving honors was Philip II of Macedon. At the wedding to his 6th wife, Philip’s enthroned image was carried in procession among the Olympian gods. Such Hellenistic state leaders might be raised to a status equal to the gods before death, like Alexander the Great, or afterwards, like members of the Ptolemaic dynasty.

A heroic cult status that’s similar to apotheosis was also an honor given to a few reversed artists of the distant past, such as Homer.

Up to the end of the Roman Republic, the god Quirinus was the only 1 the Romans accepted as having undergone apotheosis, for his identification/syncretism with Romulus. Syncretism is the practice of meshing together different beliefs & various schools of thought. Eventually apotheosis in Ancient Rome was a process whereby a deceased ruler was recognized as divine by their successors. This was usually done by a decree of the Senate & popular consent.

The 1st of these cases was the posthumous deification of the last Roman dictator Julius Caesar in 42 BC by his adopted son, the triumvir Caesar Octavian. In addition to showing respect, the present ruler often deified a popular predecessor to legitimize himself & gain popularity himself & gain popularity with the people.

A vote in the Roman Senate, in the later Empire confirming an imperial decree, was the normal official process. But this sometimes followed a period with the unofficial use of deific language or imagery for the individual. This was often done rather discreetly within the imperial circle.

There was then a public ceremony, called a consecratio, including the release of an eagle which flew high. This represents the ascent of the deified person’s soul to Heaven. Imagery featuring the ascent, sometimes using a chariot, was common on coins & in other art.

The largest & most famous example in art in a relief on the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius, showing the emperor & his wife, Faustina the Elder, being carried up by a much larger winged figure, described as representing “Eternity,” as the personifications of “Roma” & the Campus Martius sit below, & eagles fly above. The imperial couple are represented as Jupiter & Juno (or Zeus & Hera).

The historian Dio Cassius, who said he was present, gives a detailed description of the large, & lavish, public consecratio of Perinax, emperor for 3 months in 193, ordered by Septimius Severus.

At the height of the imperial cult during the Roman Empire, sometimes the emperor’s deceased loved ones (heirs, empresses, or lovers) like Hadrian’s Antinous were deified as well.

Deified people were posthumously given the title ‘Divus’ for men & ‘Diva’ for women to their names to signify their divinity. Traditional Roman religion distinguished between a deus (god) & divus (a mortal who became divine or deified), though not consistently. Temple & columns were erected to provide a space for worship.

The imperial cult was mainly popular in the provinces. Especially in the Eastern Empire, where many cultures were well used to deified rulers, & less popular in Rome itself, & among traditionalists & intellectuals.

Some privately, & cautiously, ridiculed the apotheosis of inept & feeble emperors, as in the satire The Pumkinification of (the Divine) Claudius. This is usually attributed to Seneca.

Numerous mortals have been deified into the Taoist pantheon. Examples are Guan Yi, Iron-crutch Li, & Fan Kuai. Song dynasty general Yue Fei was deified during the Ming dynasty. He’s considered by some practitioners to be 1 of the 3 highest-ranking heavenly generals. The Ming dynasty epic Investiture of the Gods deals heavily with deification legends.

In the complicated, & variable, conceptions of deity in Buddhism, the achievement of Buddhahood may be regarded as an achievable goal for the faithful. Many significant deities are considered to have begun as normal people, from Gautama Buddha (the original Buddha & the creator of Buddhism) downwards. Most of these are seen as avatars or re-births of earlier figures.

Some significant Hindu deities, in particular Rama, were also born as humans. He’s seen as an avatar of Vishnu. In more modern times, Swaminarayan is an undoubted & well-documented historical figure, who’s regarded by some Hindus as an avatar of Vishnu, or as being a still more elevated deity. Bharat Mata (Mother India) began as a national personification devised by a group of Bengali intellectuals in the late 19th century. But now it receives some worship.

Various Hindu & Buddhist rulers in the past have been represented as deities, especially after death, from India to Indonesia. Jayavarman VII, King of the Khmer Empire the 1st Buddhist king of Cambodia, had his own features used for the many statues of Buddha/Avalokitevara he erected.

The extreme personality cult instituted by the founder of North Korea, Kim Il-Sung, has been to represent a deification. And continues to this day with the current leader. Even the nation is admittedly atheist.

In Christian theology, instead of the word “apotheosis,” they use the words “deification” or “divinization” or the Greek word “theosis.” Pre-Reformation, & mainstream theology, in both East & West, views Jesus Christ as the preexisting God who undertook mortal existence. Not as a mortal being who attained divinity. A view known as adoptionism. Adoptionism is an early Christian non-Trinitarian doctrine that holds that Jesus was born a mere human being. But Jesus was later adopted by God as His son, usually at Jesus’ baptism or resurrection, rather than being divine from eternity.

It holds that he has made it possible for human beings to be raised to the level of sharing the divine nature as II Peter 1:4 states that he became human to make humans “partakers of the divine nature.”

In John 10:34, Jesus referenced Psalm 82:6 when he stated: “Is it not written in your Law, I have said you are gods?” Other authors stated: “For this is why the Word became man, & the Son of God became the Son of man: so that Man, by entering into communion with the Word & thus receiving divine sonship, might be made God.” Accusations of self deification to some degree may have been placed on heretical such as the Waldensians.

The language of II Peter is taken up by St. Irenaeus, in his famous phrase, “if the Word has been made man, it is so that men may be made gods.” It becomes the standard in Greek theology. In the 14th century, St. Athanasius repeats Irenaeus almost word for word. In the 5th century, St. Cyril of Alexandria says that we shall become sons “by participation” (Greek methexis). Methexis is “group sharing,” where the audience actively participates in the performance.

Deification is the central idea in the spirituality of St. Maximus the Confessor. For whom the doctrine is the result of the Incarnation: “Deification, briefly, is the encompassion & fulfillment of all times and ages.”

The Roman Catholic Church doesn’t use the term “apotheosis” in its theology. This is equivalent to the Greek word theosis are Latin-derived words “divinization” & deification” used in the Latin tradition of the Catholic Church.

The concept has been given less prominence in Western theology than in that of the Eastern Catholic Churches. But is present in the Latin Church’s liturgical prayer.

Despite the theological differences, in the Catholic church art depictions of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in art & the Ascension of Jesus in Christian art do share many similarities in composition to apotheosis subjects. As there are many images of saints being raised into Heaven.

Anthropolatry is the deification & worship of humans. It was practiced in ancient Japan towards their emperors. Followers of Socinianism were later accused of practicing anthropolatry.

Make a one-time donation

Make a monthly donation

Make a yearly donation

Choose an amount

Or enter a custom amount

Your contribution is appreciated.

Your contribution is appreciated.

Your contribution is appreciated.

DonateDonate monthlyDonate yearly

#1865 #193 #42BC #4thCentury #5thCentury #AbrahamicReligions #Adoptionism #AlexanderTheGreat #Ambrosia #AncientRome #Angels #Anthropolatry #Antinous #Apollo #Apotheosis #AscensionOfJesus #AssumptionOfTheVirginMary #Atheist #Avalokiteshvara #Avatar #Avatars #BaroqueArt #bengali #BereniceIIOfEgypt #BharatMata #Buddha #BuddhaGautama #Buddhahood #Buddhism #CaesarOctavian #Cambodia #CampusMartius #canonization #CatholicChurch #Christianity #ColumnOfAntoninusPius #ComaBerenices #Consecratio #Cupid #Deification #Deity #Deus #DioCassius #Disney #DIva #Divinization #Divus #EasternCatholicChurch #EasternChristianity #EasternEmpire #Egypt #Egyptians #Emperors #FanKuai #FaustinaTheElder #GrecoRoman #Greek #GuanYi #Hadrian #Hammurabi #Heaven #Hellenistic #Hera #Hercules #Hindu #Hinduism #Homer #Horus #IIPeter14 #Imhotep #ImperialCults #India #Indonesia #InvestitureOfTheGods #IronCrutchLi #Islam #Japan #JayavarmanVII #Jesus #John1034 #Judaism #JuliusCaesar #Juno #Jupiter #KhmerEmpire #KimIlSung #Krishna #Late19thCentury #Latin #LatinChurch #Mesopotamia #Methexis #MingDynasty #NaramSin #NewKingdom #NorthKorea #Olympians #Osiris #pagan #Pertinax #Pharaohs #PhilipIIOfMacedon #polytheistic #Psalm826 #Psyche #PtolemaicDynasty #Putti #Rama #Reformation #Roman #RomanCatholicChurch #RomanRepublic #RomanSenate #Romans #Romulus #Saints #Senate #Seneca #SeptimiusSeverus #Socinianism #StAthanasius #StCyrilOfAlexandria #StIrenaeus #StMaximusTheConfessor #Swaminarayan #Syncretism #Taoist #TaoistPantheon #Temple #ThePumpkinificationOfTheDivineClaudius #Theosis #Triumvir #USCapitolBuilding #Vishnu #Waldensians #YueFei #Zeus

#Anecdotique : le mois de septembre porte en lui le mot « sept » car il fait partie des rescapés du premier calendrier, de dix mois, établi par Romulus dans l'Antiquité, dans lequel il tenait la septième place.

#calendrier #romulus #septembre #histoire

A late #BumDayMonday to start the work week after Whit Monday.

This painting by Jacque-Louis David, depicts Romulus' bum in the "Intervention of the Sabine Women". The Sabines, neighbours of early Rome, attack the Romans to take back the women they abducted. The women intervene, pleading the warriors on both sides to stop the bloodshed. It was painted 1796-1799 as a plea for the people to reunite after the bloodshed of the French Revolution.

#ancientRome #Romulus #neoclassical #NeoclassicalArt