Changing Population Exposure to Pollution in #China's #SpecialEconomicZones

Leslie A. Martin, Katie Zhang, May 2021

Abstract:
"Martin and Zhang (2020) show that the increase in manufacturing output in China's special economic zones significantly increased air pollution. In this complementary paper, we document that widespread migration into these industrial clusters between 2000 and 2010 did little to change overall population exposure to pollution. We show using satellite air pollution data that there is much heterogeneity across zones and that most population growth occurred in relatively cleaner zones, supporting recent literature that documents local willingness to make location decisions based on environmental quality (Chen et al. 2019, Khanna et al. 2020)."

Article link [paywall]:
https://ftp.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/pandp.20211074

#SacrificeZones #SEZs #HumanRights #HumanRightsFreeZone #Pollution #EnvironmentalDegradation
#EconomicSacrificZones
#AirIsLife #WaterIsLife

How communities in #SacrificeZones suffer environmental injustices in #Mexico, #Chile, #Nigeria and #Indonesia (analysis)

Daniela Sepulveda and Angélica Arellano, 9 Apr 2025

"Across continents, 'sacrifice zones' resemble wounds carved deep into the fabric of our planet. These are regions where ecosystems and livelihoods have been ravaged by fossil fuel and other industries that promise progress but leave devastation in their wake. These are places where big business and transnational corporations are contaminating the rivers, darkening the skies, and making the soil barren; where the toll of development is paid in human suffering and ecological destruction.

"What unites these 'sacrifice zones' is the shared story of areas where prosperity for the few is built on the suffering of many, and where communities fight to mend the fractures inflicted upon their land, health and dignity.

"Here are four case studies highlighting the experiences of communities and civil society organizations collaborating with us in the Coalition for Human Rights in Development’s Community Resource Exchange.

#Tula, #Mexico

"In the #TulaTepejiApaxco region, where the #Toltec plains once supported rich #biodiversity and #CulturalHeritage, the water and air are now saturated with pollution. This devastated landscape was declared both in 1975 and again in 2005 by the U.N. as one of the most polluted places on Earth, marking it as an #EnvironmentalDisaster zone. Since the early 20th century, the arrival of #CementPlants, #refineries, #ChemicalFactories, a #coal-fired power plant and #LimeKilns has transformed the region. Backed by all levels of government, these industries have destroyed the area’s ecological balance and ruined the health of its people, poisoning the water, air and soil with #ToxicWaste.

"Prominent among these polluters are cement giants like #Holcim, #CEMEX, #CementosFortaleza and #Clarimex, whose operations release harmful gases that exacerbate the region’s environmental and public health crises. One of the epicenters of this environmental catastrophe is the #TulaRiver, which receives 150,000 liters (nearly 40,000 gallons) of untreated wastewater every second from Mexico City and the Valley of Mexico. These 'black waters' are teeming with industrial and hospital waste plus sewage, overwhelming the river and its tributaries.

"The #EndhóDam, originally built to support local #agriculture, has become a toxic dumping ground, poisoning thousands of people who rely on wells for drinking water. Despite decades of warnings, local and national governments have allowed this contamination to persist. The poisoned waters have killed fish, flooded the land with toxic sludge, and led to a surge in cancer, leukemia, respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases among the 15,000 inhabitants living along its banks. In 2021, a devastating flood related to the overflowing Tula River left 17 dead and displaced thousands, a stark reminder of the ongoing risks of government inaction.

"The region now faces a massive public health crisis, and the recent declaration by the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources to designate the area as an ecological restoration zone is a necessary but overdue step. This declaration covers municipalities such as #Atitalaquia,TepejiDelRío, #Tepetitlán and Tlahuelilpan, where 498 businesses have been identified as generators of hazardous waste, including 14 that produce hydrocarbons. The study, based on a water, air and soil analysis, could mark the beginning of recovery if it is implemented with urgency and seriousness.

"Over the years, organizations like #RedDeConcienciaAmbiental '#QueremosVivir' have resisted, bringing visibility to the devastation and fighting to halt deforestation and continued pollution. In the words of one of the leaders of Queremos Vivir ('We want to live'), 'There needs to be a legal solution, because it’s that urgent. We believe there is still a way to reverse it, and we have time to show the newly elected president #ClaudiaSheinbaum the dire situation we’re in.'

"Their demands include a reduction in the water flow of the Tula River through holistic water management solutions, and government accountability for decades of environmental neglect, calling for reparations for both industrial pollution and the catastrophic 2021 floods.

"While they welcome Sheinbaum’s promises to clean the river and launch a circular economy project, they emphasize that meaningful environmental justice must not be delayed any longer. After stating the communities’ demands through tears, the Queremos Vivir leader said, 'Are we really just going to be destined to be a sacrifice zone? The damage is so severe, the degradation we are in, that if we don’t protect it, don’t defend it, then what are we going to do?' "

Read more:
https://news.mongabay.com/2025/04/how-communities-in-sacrifice-zones-suffer-environmental-injustices-in-mexico-chile-nigeria-and-indonesia-analysis/

#SEZs #Antofagasta #Nigeria #Indonesia #HumanRights #HumanRightsFreeZone #CorporateColonialism
#Exploitation #RaceToTheBottom
#HumanRightsViolations
#Pollution #EnvironmentalDegradation
#EconomicSacrificZones
#ForcedRelocation #ForcedDisplacement #TraditionalLifestyles #AirIsLife #WaterIsLife #EnvironmentalRacism #Exploitation

#SEZs in #India: Balancing Economic Growth and #Environmental Concerns

July 27, 2024

"Picture this: vast stretches of industrial land buzzing with activity, modern factories producing goods for global markets, and thousands of job opportunities emerging overnight. This is the promise of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in India. But behind this gleaming facade lies a complex web of environmental challenges and social concerns that demand our attention. SEZs represent one of India’s most ambitious economic policies, designed to accelerate industrial growth and boost exports, yet they often come at a significant cost to the environment and local communities.

[...]

"[T]he rapid expansion of SEZs has raised significant environmental red flags. The most pressing concern is land acquisition, which often involves converting fertile agricultural land into industrial zones. This conversion not only reduces the country’s agricultural capacity but also disrupts local ecosystems and biodiversity.

"The establishment of SEZs typically requires large tracts of land – sometimes spanning thousands of acres. Much of this land is acquired from agricultural areas, leading to the displacement of farming communities who have depended on these lands for generations. For instance, the proposed #RaigadSEZ in #Maharashtra would have required over 14,000 hectares of #agricultural land, leading to massive #protests from local farmers.

"The conversion of agricultural land to #IndustrialUse has long-term implications for #FoodSecurity. As India’s population continues to grow, the loss of productive #farmland could exacerbate food shortage issues in the future. Moreover, agricultural land often has better soil quality and water retention capacity compared to industrial land, making this conversion environmentally costly.

"Industrial activities within SEZs generate various forms of #pollution. Air pollution from #manufacturing processes, water #contamination from industrial effluents, and #SoilDegradation from chemical usage are common problems. The concentration of industries in SEZs can create pollution hotspots that affect air and water quality in surrounding areas.

"#WaterScarcity is another critical issue. SEZs require substantial water resources for industrial processes, often competing with local communities for this precious resource. In water-stressed regions, this competition can lead to conflicts and further environmental degradation.
Human rights and social displacement

"The human cost of SEZ development cannot be overlooked. Land acquisition for SEZs often involves displacing local communities, particularly small farmers and agricultural workers. These communities frequently receive inadequate compensation and struggle to find alternative livelihoods.

"The displacement process can be traumatic for local communities who have strong cultural and emotional ties to their land. Traditional occupations like #farming, #fishing, and #SmallScaleTrading are disrupted, forcing people to adapt to entirely new economic realities. The promised employment opportunities in SEZs often don’t materialize for displaced communities, as they may lack the required skills for industrial jobs.

"Women in these communities face particular challenges, as they often have limited access to alternative employment opportunities and may lose traditional income sources like kitchen gardening or small-scale agricultural activities. The social fabric of rural communities can be severely disrupted, leading to increased poverty and social inequality."

https://csr.education/urban-planning-development/sezs-india-economic-growth-environment/#environmental-concerns-the-hidden-costs

#HumanRights #HumanRightsFreeZone #CorporateColonialism
#IMFLoanSharks #Exploitation #WorldBank #RaceToTheBottom
#HumanRightsViolations
#Pollution #EnvironmentalDegradation
#EconomicSacrificZones
#ForcedRelocation #ForcedDisplacement #TraditionalLifestyles #EnvironmentalRacism #Exploitation
#CorporateColonialism

The #environmental burdens of #SpecialEconomicZones on the coastal and marine #environment: A remote sensing assessment in #Myanmar

Thiri Shwesin Aung, Indra Overland, Roman Vakulchuk, Yanhua Xie
November 2022

"Special economic zones (#SEZs) are unusual parts of the world economy in terms of law, institutions, and economic functions (Chaisse and Dimitropoulos 2021). SEZs are geographically delimited areas created to facilitate industrial activities through fiscal and regulatory incentives and infrastructure support (UNCTAD 2019). Such zones carve out jurisdiction as a subset of the overall state jurisdiction for the purposes of enacting different laws and regulations that are more trade and investment friendly (Zeng 2021). Since the year 2000, SEZs have mushroomed in developing countries to attract foreign direct investment (FDI), accelerate industrialization and create jobs (Aiyer 2017). There are 5400 SEZs in 147 economies around the world. Asia is home to three quarters of them (UNIDO 2015). They have been a core element of the economic development strategy of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and currently all ASEAN member states have SEZs (Aggarwal 2022).

"As part of an export-oriented development strategy, the zones commonly include industrial mega-areas that accommodate large-scale infrastructure, deep-sea ports, logistical infrastructure for oil and gas, hotels and tourism, and industrial complexes (Aggarwal 2022). They are primarily defined by a specific regulatory regime and a dedicated governance mechanism designed to relieve customs and tariffs and reduce the burden on businesses from permits, licenses, employment laws, and land access. In return, host governments expect investors to create positive spillover effects, such as facilitating innovation, boosting employment, raising exports, and diversifying the economy. The global experience of SEZs have been mixed, with some countries achieving successful economic outcomes, while others struggle to overcome market failures, institutional constraints, and social and environmental costs (Aggarwal 2022; Zeng 2021).

"The lax regulatory regimes of SEZs often raise concerns about environmental, social, and #HumanRights standards, as well as possible conflicts over #LandRights (Brussevich 2020). Several SEZs have failed to yield the expected economic benefits while having severe adverse impacts on the environment and local communities (Adunbi 2019; Aritenang and Chandramidi 2020; Chaisse and Ji 2020). On the other hand, while SEZs can be hotspots for environmental #mismanagement, they can also provide opportunities for implementing environmental policies specifically designed to regulate industries within the zones. Also, certain environmental advantages may ensue from the introduction of foreign financial resources and environmental technologies that are otherwise not readily available (Richardson 2004).

"However, according to the 'race to the bottom' literature, most SEZs have a net negative impact on the environment and local communities (Richardson 2004; UNIDO 2015; ZENG and DOUGLAS, 2012).

"Despite this contradiction, existing studies focusing on the direct and indirect impacts of SEZs have been rare (#WorldBank, 2017). Particularly, the magnitude and intensity of SEZ impacts on the environment remain understudied.
SEZs tend to be located in remote regions. As such, SEZ-related information and data are generally scarce, making it difficult to assess the environmental consequences of such zones. Many SEZs are also located in countries where there is limited scope for independent environmental assessment due to #authoritarian rule, #corruption, and/or #secrecy surrounding deals with foreign investors. Recent improvements in access to satellite data and computing platforms for machine learning have greatly improved the ability to comprehensively assess SEZs in any location in the world in near real time (Ali et al., 2020; Jensen et al., 2019). This article demonstrates how these technologies can be applied to provide evidence related to the environmental impacts of SEZs. The method is tried out on the Kyaukpyu SEZ in Myanmar. Myanmar is an authoritarian country and the #KyaukpyuSEZ is a flagship project of China's Belt and Road Initiative (#BRI) located in an inaccessible part of #Myanmar. This is precisely the type of case where independent access can be limited and a remote sensing approach can be useful.

"From 2010 onwards, Myanmar was navigating its economic transformation and a partial loosening of military rule. SEZ development was prioritized as a critical element of the country's industrialization (Oxfam 2017). The three most notable ongoing SEZ projects are the Kyaukpyu SEZ in the rural but strategically important Rakhine State, which is also the largest SEZ in Myanmar, the Thilawa SEZ on the outskirts of Myanmar's former capital Yangon, and the Dawei SEZ in the Tanintharyi Region. Tanintharyi is a long narrow southern territory of Myanmar bordering the Andaman Sea to the west and Thailand to the east.

"Although they are expected to encourage economic growth and reduce poverty, all three SEZ projects continue to face local opposition, particularly the Kyaukpyu and Dawei SEZs. The International Commission of Jurists (2017) has reported that SEZs in Myanmar are linked to human rights violations and environmental abuses (Donateo 2017). Although Myanmar's SEZ law adopted in 2014 reaffirms the applicability of environmental regulations to SEZ development, it does not clearly delineate responsibilities between developers and the state (DICA 2014). The law also does not conform with international human rights standards (MCRB 2018)."

Read more:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352938522001173

#RaceToTheBottom #HumanRightsViolations #Pollution #EnvironmentalDegradation #EconomicSacrificZones #ForcedRelocation #ForcedDisplacement #HumanRightsViolations #EnvironmentalDegradation #IndigenousPeoples #ForestPeoples #SaveTheForests #Exploitation #CorporateColonialism