Global Ecology by M. I. Budyko

Following the rapid development of anthropogenic changes in the environment in recent years there emerged a heightened interest in problems of global ecology. This is why it was important to write a book devoted entirely to the problems of that science, even though this has presented some difficulties.

Global ecology as a distinct scientific discipline is still in a state of development,rand its boundaries are not yet clearly defined. While not seeking to encompass all branches of that science, the author has found it appropriate to emphasize the central problem of world ecology, namely, the [circulation of energy and of different types of matter within the biosphere. Wide use has been made of the author’s own earlier studies, including relevant sections of Thermal Balance of the Earth’s Surface (1956), Climate and Life (1971), and Climatic Changes (1974).

These studies are fneeded to solve current problems of global ecology, as well as to explain the patterns of the biosphere’s evolution in the past and to forecast its possible changes in the future.

Particular emphasis has been given to the geophysical aspects of global ecology, since the author possessed more data on that subject than on other aspects of that science.

Translated from the Russian
Designed by Mikhail Shevtsov

You can get the book here and here.

Preface 5
The Biosphere 6
1. The Problems and Tasks of Global Ecology 6
2. The Structure of the Biosphere 17
The Transformations of Solar Radiation 36
1. Components of the Biosphere’s Energy Balance 36
2. The Geographical Distribution of Energy Balance Components 50
III Climate 72
1. Climate and Life 72
2. The Theory of Climate 81
3. Changes in Climate 99
IV The Hydrological Cycle 114
1. The Water Balance 114
2. Relations Between Energy and Water Balances on Land 120
3. The Water Exchange in the Atmosphere 128
V Geographical Zones 136
1. Climatic Factors Determining Geographical Zonality 136
2. A Periodic Law of Geographical Zonality 142
VI The Circulation of Organic Matter 154
1. Activities of Autotrophic Plants 154
2. The Global Biological Cycle 175
VII The Ecological Mechanism of the Evolution of Organisms 191
1. The Stability of Ecological Systems 191
2. Critical Ages in the History of the Biosphere 202
VIII The Ecological Mechanism of the Evolution of Man 222
1. The Origin of Man 222
2. The Ecological Crisis of the Upper Paleolithic 233
IX Man and the Biosphere 249
1. The Current Ecological Situation 249
2. Man’s Influence on Global Processes 259
X The Future of the Biosphere 276
1. The Evolution of the Biosphere 276
2. The Biosphere in the Near Future 293
Conclusion 310
Bibliography 313

#1975 #biosphere #ecologicalMechanisms #evolutionOfMan #geographicalZones #hydrologicalCycle #organicMatter #progressPublishers #sovietLiterature

The Economics of Water: Valuing the Hydrological Cycle as a Global Common Good

The world faces a growing #water disaster. For the first time in human history, the #HydrologicalCycle is out of balance, undermining an equitable and sustainable future for all.
Decades of collective mismanagement and undervaluation of water around the world have damaged our #freshwater and land ecosystems...

https://youtu.be/J2-DAwD5qNQ

Report:
https://economicsofwater.watercommission.org/

#Hydrology
#ClimateCatastrophe
#WaterCrisis

Climate change threatens shipping lanes, also known as the world's great rivers: the Yangtze, the Rhine, the Mississippi. Capitalists have permanently altered the Earth's hydrologic cycle.

#ClimateChange #ClimateCrisis #drought #rivers #HydrologicalCycle #InternationalTrade #Capitalism

https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/shipping-great-shrinking-waterways

Global Water Monitor released. Scientists found "global warming is profoundly changing the water cycle. As a result, we are seeing more rapid and severe #droughts as well as more severe #storms and #flood events."

#ClimateCrisis #HydrologicalCycle

https://theconversation.com/how-2023s-record-heat-worsened-droughts-floods-and-bushfires-around-the-world-220836

Unprecedented Devastation: Analysing the 2021 European Flash Floods and Their Climate Change Connection

Flash flooding differs significantly from traditional floods. It occurs suddenly and is triggered by heavy rainfall over a short period of time, (Grealish, 2021), usually within the first three to six hours of the rainfall. Unlike regular floods, which results from rivers or streams overflowing, flash flooding occurs swiftly leaving no time for the water to drain in urban areas due to the paved surfaces. This rapid onset often leaves little time for warning, leading to more extensive damage (Vigdor, 2021). The European 2021 flash flooding is one example of how devastating flash floods can be.

Event Timeline

Flash Floods Impacts and Government Response

Why Are Flash Floods Dangerous?

Flash floods, characterized by their short duration and localized occurrence, present unique dangers:

Sudden and Unpredictable: Flash floods are notorious for their abrupt onset. Within mere hours of heavy rainfall, these deluges can turn placid streams into raging torrents (Grealish, 2021). Their rapid development means traditional warning systems often fall short (Raška & Brázdil, 2015).

Devastating Impacts: The devastation wrought by flash floods extends to both communities and the environment. They pose a severe threat to human life, wreak havoc on ecosystems, and can obliterate vital infrastructure.

Limited Warning Time: Due to their swift nature, flash floods often strike before comprehensive warnings can be issued, leaving us with little time to react (Marchi et al., 2010).

Poor Understanding: Astonishingly, flash floods remain inadequately understood and documented, hindering our ability to mitigate their effects (Gaume et al., 2009).

Economic Toll: Flash floods exact a hefty economic toll. Between 1950 and 2006, Europe witnessed 40% of flood-related casualties, with an estimated annual income loss exceeding €40 billion (Gaume et al., 2009).

Rising Threat: As societies continue to develop socially and economically, flash floods pose an ever-increasing threat, exerting pressure on land use and infrastructure (Marchi et al., 2010).

Flash Floods Predictions

Predicting flash floods is a challenging endeavour due to several factors:

Spatial and Temporal Scales: Flash floods occur on small spatial and temporal scales, making them difficult to monitor effectively using conventional rain and discharge measurement networks (Marchi et al., 2010).

Rare Local Events: Flash floods are relatively rare at the local scale, further complicating observation and study in experimental catchments.

Insights from Local Flash Flood Events

A study by Bryndal (2015) sheds light on local flash flood events:

These events often result from short-duration, high-intensity rainfall lasting less than two hours.

Flash floods frequently impact mountainous and upland areas, influenced by topographic conditions exacerbated by global warming.

Climate Change and Flash Floods

Climate change encompasses long-term environmental shifts, including a significant rise in global temperatures over the past century (Kumar et al., 2021). Projections indicate a further increase of 1.8 to 4°C in the 21st century.

Impact on Extreme Weather

The rise in temperature, primarily driven by greenhouse gas emissions, has ushered in a host of challenges, including a surge in extreme weather events (Kumar et al., 2021). European countries have experienced weather patterns previously unseen, complicating disaster preparedness and response.

Intensification of Hydrological Cycle

Evidence points to an intensifying hydrological cycle due to global warming, contributing to the increased frequency and severity of flash floods (Marchi et al., 2010). This intensification results from changes in climate, storm patterns, and river discharge conditions.

Conclusion

In conclusion, our exploration into flash floods and their connection to climate change reveals a pressing concern. Flash floods, characterized by their sudden intensity, pose unique challenges for prediction and mitigation due to their small-scale and rapid onset.

The European countries we’ve discussed face unprecedented weather patterns, straining disaster preparedness and response. Climate change’s most alarming consequence is the intensification of the hydrological cycle, leading to more frequent and severe flash floods. This intensification stems from climate shifts, altered storm patterns, and river discharge changes, amplifying the risks.

It’s clear that flash floods are not isolated incidents but part of a larger environmental narrative. Climate change, driven by greenhouse gas emissions, makes flash floods a recurrent and dangerous threat.

To address this challenge, we need improved prediction methods, enhanced emergency management, and a deeper understanding of these events. Crucially, we must tackle the root cause by reducing emissions, adapting to changing weather, and building resilience to protect our communities from flash floods in our rapidly changing world.

Sources

Bryndal, T. (2015). Local flash floods in Central Europe: A case study of Poland. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift – Norwegian Journal of Geography, 69(5), 288-298. https://doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2015.1072242

Eddy, M., Specia, M., Erlanger, S., Erwing, J., Erdbrink, T., Fountain, H., & Schwartz, J. (2021). Europe Flooding Deaths Pass 125, and Scientists See Fingerprints of Climate Change. Nytimes.com. Retrieved 26 October 2021, from https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/07/16/world/europe-flooding-germany.

Fitzgerald, M., Angerer, C., & Smith, P. (2021). Almost 200 dead as Germany counts devastating cost of floods. NBC News. Retrieved 5 December 2021, from https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/almost-200-dead-many-still-missing-after-floods-germany-counts-n1274330.

Gaume, E., Bain, V., Bernardara, P., Newinger, O., Barbuc, M., & Bateman, A. et al. (2009). A compilation of data on European flash floods. Journal Of Hydrology, 367(1-2), 70-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.12.028

Graphic News [@GNgraphicnews]. (2021, July 19). Death toll exceeds 190 in European floods: July 19, 2021 — #floods #Germany #Germanyfloods #Belgium #Netherlands #climatechange… [Image attached][Tweet]. Twitter. Retrieved 08 December 2021, from https://twitter.com/GNgraphicnews/status/1417172020077338657.

Grealish, S. (2021). What is a flash flood? The Sun. Retrieved 7 December 2021, from https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/16041981/what-is-a-flash-flood/.

Kumar, A., Nagar, S., & Anand, S. (2021). Climate change and existential threats. Global Climate Change, 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-822928-6.00005-8

Marchi, L., Borga, M., Preciso, E., & Gaume, E. (2010). Characterisation of selected extreme flash floods in Europe and implications for flood risk management. Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam), 394(1-2), 118–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.017

Mathiesen, K., Posaner, J., & Gehrke, L. (2021). Europe’s floods: How a modern warning system was overwhelmed. POLITICO. Retrieved 4 December 2021, from https://www.politico.eu/article/unnatural-disaster-the-german-belgian-floods-climate-change/.

Niranjan, A. (2021). German floods: Climate change made heavy rains in Europe more likely | DW | 23.08.2021. DW.COM. Retrieved 5 December 2021, from https://www.dw.com/en/german-floods-climate-change/a-58959677.

NL Times. (2021). Heavy rains leave Limburg flooded; Some showers expected today. NL Times. Retrieved 14 December 2021, from https://nltimes.nl/2021/07/15/heavy-rains-leave-limburg-flooded-showers-expected-today.

NOAA Satellites [@NOAASatellites]. (2021, July 16). Imagery from Europe’s #Meteosat11… [Image attached] [Tweet]. Twitter, Retrieved 06 December 2021, from https://twitter.com/NOAASatellites/status/1416050009791991808?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E1416050009791991808%7Ctwgr%5E%7Ctwcon%5Es1_&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fweather%2F2021%2F07%2F16%2Fweather-pattern-climate-germany-flooding%2F

Oltermann, P. (2021). Germany floods: 155 still missing as hopes of further rescues fade. the Guardian. Retrieved 26 October 2021, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/21/germany-floods-one-hundred-fifty-five-still-missing-hope-further-rescue-fade.

Raška, P., & Brázdil, R. (2015). Participatory responses to historical flash floods and their relevance for current risk reduction: a view from a post-communist country. Area, 47(2), 166-178. https://doi.org/10.1111/area.12159

Summer Floods in Europe 2021. Jbarisk.com. (2021). Retrieved 10 December 2021, from https://www.jbarisk.com/flood-services/event-response/summer-floods-in-europe-2021/.

Vigdor, N. (2021). What Is Flash Flooding, and How Can You Avoid It? Nytimes.com. Retrieved 6 December 2021, from https://www.nytimes.com/article/flash-flood-safety-tips.html.

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