SSA without Dominance for Higher-Order Programs

Dominance is a fundamental concept in compilers based on static single assignment (SSA) form. It underpins a wide range of analyses and transformations and defines a core property of SSA: every use must be dominated by its definition. We argue that this reliance on dominance has become increasingly problematic -- both in terms of precision and applicability to modern higher-order languages. First, control flow overapproximates data flow, which makes dominance-based analyses inherently imprecise. Second, dominance is well-defined only for first-order control-flow graphs (CFGs). More critically, higher-order programs violate the assumptions underlying SSA and classic CFGs: without an explicit CFG, the very notion that all uses of a variable must be dominated by its definition loses meaning. We propose an alternative foundation based on free variables. In this view, $ϕ$-functions and function parameters directly express data dependencies, enabling analyses traditionally built on dominance while improving precision and naturally extending to higher-order programs. We further present an efficient technique for maintaining free-variable sets in a mutable intermediate representation (IR). For analyses requiring additional structure, we introduce the nesting tree -- a relaxed analogue of the dominator tree constructed from variable dependencies rather than control flow. Our benchmarks demonstrate that the algorithms and data structures presented in this paper scale log-linearly with program size in practice.