From the American Revolution onwards, Black Americans enthusiastically enlisted in the U.S. Armed Forces, hoping that service would validate their equality. But, they were soon confronted with the harsh truth of segregation & mistreatment during service. As the 20th century dawned, this injustice, abroad and at home, fueled a growing sense of race pride and consciousness.
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During World War I, the United States witnessed deep-rooted segregation both within the military and civilian society, posing barriers that hindered African Americans from enlisting. Despite these obstacles, approximately 380,000 African Americans valiantly served in the U.S. military during the war. One notable figure was Colonel Charles Young, the highest-ranking Black American Army officer in 1918.
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Despite his impressive leadership record, the Army denied Young's request to command troops in Europe. Determined to prove his fitness, Young embarked on a challenging horseback ride from his home in Wilberforce, OH, to D.C. But, his feat failed to sway the Secretary of War, & he was not given the opportunity to lead soldiers in Europe. Nonetheless, Col Young persisted in his fight for respect and recognition on the Homefront.
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Charles Young was born in 1864 in May's Lick, Kentucky, under the bondage of slavery to parents Gabriel and Arminta. After his father's escape in 1865, he joined the Union Army, serving in the 5th United States Colored Heavy Artillery.
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Following the war, the family relocated to Ripley, Ohio, where Charles was influenced by the town's culture of activism and self-improvement. Despite the restrictions on education for enslaved individuals in many southern states, Charles was inspired by his literate mother and grandmother to become a dedicated student.
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As a young man, Charles Young applied to the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, becoming one of the first ten African Americans to be admitted. Throughout his career, he served with the segregated 9th and 10th Cavalry regiments, leading Black American troops in various places, including Cuba, Haiti, the Philippines, Mexico, Africa, and the western United States.
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Notably, he became the first African American superintendent of a National Park while patrolling Sequoia National Park in California. In addition to his military service, Young taught military science at Wilberforce University in Ohio, where he collaborated with influential Black American thinkers .
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The First World War commenced in 1914, but the United States didn't enter until April 6, 1917. Once the U.S. joined the war effort, Black Americans eagerly volunteered to serve in the military, prompting questions about who would lead the Black American troops in Europe - men of color or white leaders?
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Colonel Young, aged 53, held the highest rank among Black American military officers in the country at that time. He and his supporters firmly believed that he should lead these soldiers. However, the Army officials disagreed and promoted Charles Young to the rank of Colonel in June 1917 but declared him physically unfit to command troops in World War I.
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Refusing to accept this decision, Colonel Young insisted it was his duty to lead troops in France. He formally objected and provided documents to prove his physical fitness. Despite trying to appeal to senior government officials from his home in Ohio, he couldn't sway their decision.
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After a year of battling his case, Colonel Young embarked on a challenging 16-day horseback ride from Wilberforce to Washington D.C. in June 1918, covering 497 miles, equivalent to almost eight hours of driving by today's standards. Though exhausted upon his arrival, he was still in good health.
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In the capital, Young met with Secretary of War Newton Baker, who remained unmoved even after seeing evidence of Young's fitness to command. Despite a lifetime of bravery and leadership and a remarkable show of strength, Colonel Young couldn't convince the U.S. Army to grant him a command in Europe. Nevertheless, he continued to serve in the Army, persevering despite discrimination and obstacles.
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The Army assigned Colonel Young to a unit in Liberia, a country in Africa with historical ties to the United States, founded in 1847 as a new home for free Black Americans. Colonel Young passed away in Liberia on January 8, 1922, and the Army laid him to rest in Arlington National Cemetery.
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Colonel Young's remarkable ride showcased his strength, patriotism, and ability to confront adversity. He challenged those who deemed themselves superior to him based on their race. His experience was not unique. Many Black American soldiers who served in World War I also faced racism within the Army and upon their return home.
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Some Black American World War I veterans fell victim to racial violence, with several being lynched without trial by mobs after the war. This kind of terrorism was resulted in the murders of hundreds of Black Americans in 1919.
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Twenty years after Colonel Young's death, in September 1940, the Selective Training and Service Act became the nation's 1st peacetime draft law. Civil rights leaders urged President Franklin D. Roosevelt to allow Black men the opportunity to register and serve in integrated regiments. However, FDR's appointee, Secretary of War Henry Stimson, showed no interest in altering the existing segregated system.
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Amid the growing intensity of war in Europe, FDR reached a compromise, permitting Black men to register for the draft but maintaining segregation within the military. The military would determine the number of Black individuals inducted into the service.
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This compromise encapsulated the paradoxical experience faced by the 1.2 million Black American men who served in World War II. They fought for democracy overseas while enduring second-class treatment in their own country. Despite their eagerness to serve, Jim Crow discrimination persisted in society and permeated every branch of the armed forces.
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The bases and training facilities, predominantly located in the South, including Fort Huachuca in Arizona, the largest military installation for Black soldiers, practiced segregation with separate blood banks, hospitals, medical staff, barracks, and recreational facilities. White soldiers and local residents frequently subjected them to slurs and harassment.
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The mistreatment by white officers at army bases was appalling, with reports of slave-like conditions and dehumanizing treatment. Racial epithets were regularly hurled, denying them the respect they deserved as both soldiers and human beings.
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Due to the military's biased view of Black Americans, they were often confined to labor and service units. Tasks such as cooking, mechanics work, road construction, and unloading supplies became common for Black soldiers. Even those who attained officer rank were only allowed to lead other Black men.
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Carrying weapons as infantry, tank corps, or pilots was deemed unthinkable for Black Americans. Instead, the use of Black soldiers in support positions, as noncombatants or laborers, was deemed more acceptable by southern politicians and much of the military command.
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In 1941, A. Philip Randolph, a socialist and civil rights activist, along with Bayard Rustin and A.J. Muste, took a stand against United States policies that excluded African Americans from jobs in the defense industry. To address this injustice, Randolph proposed a national, black-led march on the Capitol, creating concern about the potential impact of tens of thousands of Black Americans marching in protest.
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During a period of widespread unrest caused by racial discrimination, segregation, inequitable pay, limited access to employment, and the long-standing failure to pass a federal anti-lynching bill, the prospect of a united gathering of Black Americans motivated President Franklin D. Roosevelt to take action.
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To avert the planned march, in 1941, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, also known as the Fair Employment Act. This order prohibited "discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin." The executive order aimed to address the pressing issue of racial discrimination in the workforce and promote fair employment opportunities for all.
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Throughout World War II, Black leaders and the Black press played a crucial role in advocating for Black soldiers' rights. They skillfully highlighted the contradiction of fighting a war supposedly for democracy while having a racially segregated army.
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In 1942, the Pittsburgh Courier, a prominent Black newspaper, responded to a thought-provoking letter from 26-year-old Black soldier James G. Thompson. In his letter, Thompson questioned whether he should risk his life for a country that treated him as a 2nd-class citizen, stating, "Should I sacrifice my life to live half American?" In response to this poignant question, the Courier initiated the Double V Campaign.
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The"Double V," symbolized a twofold victory: 1 for democracy overseas & another against racism in America. Black journalists & activists embraced the rallying cry to garner support for equality & justice for Black Americans. The campaign spotlighted contributions made by Black soldiers in the war effort while exposing the discrimination they endured while fighting for freedoms that were denied on their home soil.
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As the war neared its final year, mounting casualties among white soldiers compelled the military to deploy Black Americans as infantrymen, officers, tankers, and pilots, in addition to their invaluable role in supply divisions.
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From August 1944 to November 1944, the Red Ball Express, comprised mostly of Black drivers, played a crucial role in delivering gasoline, ammunition, food, mechanical parts, and medical supplies to General George Patton's Third Army in France. Driving up to 400 miles on narrow roads in pitch darkness without headlights to avoid detection by the Germans, they proved their dedication and resilience.
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The 761 Tank Battalion made history as the first Black division to engage in ground combat in Europe. Joining Patton's Third Army in France in November 1944, these brave men participated in the liberation of 30 towns under Nazi control and endured 183 days of combat, including the Battle of the Bulge.
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The Tuskegee Airmen, an all-Black fighter pilot group trained at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, played a vital role in escorting bombers over Italy and Sicily, completing 1600 combat missions, destroying 237 German aircraft on the ground and 37 in the air.
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Critical roles in the war effort played by Black soldiers were indispensable, shaping the American military into the formidable fighting force it became during World War II.. But, such perspectives were not widely covered in the white press at the time.
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Following the official end of World War II on September 2, 1945, Black soldiers returned to the United States, only to face violent white mobs who resented African Americans in uniform and viewed them as a threat to the social order of Jim Crow. Black soldiers thought their service would be appreciated and they would be treated equally as white soldiers returning home. It was not. And they were not.
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Amidst racial violence, Black soldiers often found themselves denied the benefits guaranteed under the G.I. Bill, which was comprehensive legislation providing tuition assistance, job placement, and home and business loans to veterans.
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As civil rights activists continued to highlight America's hypocritical stance as a democratic nation with a Jim Crow army, Southern politicians remained staunchly opposed to granting full racial equality to Black Americans.
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In the next session, I will provide an overview of how, exactly 75 years ago, President Harry Truman signed Executive Order 998, leading to the desegregation of the United States Armed Forces. However, it wasn't until the Korean War that America fully integrated, its armed forces.
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Books
Dixon, Chris. African Americans and the Pacific War, 1941–1945: Race, Nationality, and the Fight for Freedom. Cambridge University Press, 2018.
Knauer, Christine. Let Us Fight as Free Men: Black Soldiers and Civil Rights. Politics and Culture in Modern America. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014.
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More Books
Moore, Christopher. Fighting for America: Black Soldiers–the Unsung Heroes of World War II. First edition. Ballantine Press, 2004.
Stanford University Press. Black Quotidian: Everyday History in African-American Newspapers. Digital book, 2019.
White, Steven. World War II and American Racial Politics: Public Opinion, the Presidency, and Civil Rights Advocacy. Cambridge University Press, 2019.
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