Mastodawn

Klis Fortress: The Key of Dalmatia

Klis Fortress is known also as a Key of Dalmatia, and for a good reason. It is a large (300 meters by 70 meters) fortress protecting one of few good entrances into Croatian littoral area. Specifically, it protects the Klis canyon which separates the mountains of Mosor and Kozjak, as well as being most immediate path between coastal city of Split and the Dalmatian hintherlands. It is thus understandable why it was one of the most important royal cities and one of major royal seats of the medieval Croatia: whoever controlled the Klis Fortress, held the keys to entire central Dalmatia.

History of the Klis Fortress

First traces of habitation around the Klis Fortress come from later Stone Age, with archeological finds from Krčina cave connected to the impresso culture. This is the first Neolithic culture of Adriatic, lasting from 6 000 BC to 4 500 BC, and is characterized by the ceramic dishes with artistic impressions.

First undeniable signs of habitation where identity of inhabitants can be ascertained come from the 2nd Century BC when an Illyrian tribe of Delmatae lived here. Remnants of Delmatae hillfort (gradina) were found near the foot of the stone outrcrop on which the current fortress is situated. Alongside the Markezina greda and gradina above Odž, both located some distance northward on Kozjak, this hillfort controlled the access to Illyrian Salona and Jadro river.

But the first reliable news of the existence of the Klis fortress is brought by the Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenetus in 10th century AD when he describes how Avars and Slavs had captured the Roman fort of Kleisa in 614 AD by ruse, as a prelude to conquest of Salona. Few news exist for the next 200 years, due to both the lack of literacy among the newly arrived populace and the tumultous circumstances of the time.

At some point Klis fortress had become the seat of the dukes and then kings of Croatia. Transcript of the document from 852 AD mentions Klis as possession and the court (ex curte nostra que Clissa dictur) of Croatian duke Trpimir and his predecessor Mislav. Soon after it became the seat of the old Croatian Coastal or Klis County.

When in the 11th century Croatian dynasty died out and Croatia came unde rule of kings of Hungary, Klis becomes personal possession of the kings of Hungary who often give it to their dukes and viceroys. In 1221 Croatian noble Domald managed to take Klis but in 1227 duke Grgor Šubić took the city back in the king’s name. Soon after however Domald again rules Klis, but in 1239 Stjepko and Jakov Šubić defeated him and brought Klis again under the royal rule.

Fortress was unsuccessfully besieged by Mongols in early March 1242 while they were hunting for King Bela IV. Following the Mongol invasions of 1241-2 the fortress was for a short time ruled by the Knights Templar.

After them, during the 13th century, the fort came under control of major noble families of Southern Croatia – Nelipić, Svačić, Šubić. Šubić family, the most powerful in Croatia then, kept Klis in their possession for 50 years. From 1335 onwards Klis is again under royal protection.

One thing that never changed was that the fort was always a center of attention of various powers vying for control over it. Especially from the late 14th century until the late 15th century Klis becomes the centerpoint of fighting between the various Croatian nobles and Hungaro-Croatian kings for control of the fortress. But the worst was yet to come in the 16th century.

Possibly the longest-enduring enemies of the fort were the Venetians and the Ottomans, both trying to gain control over it for centuries. Especially difficult would be the early 16th century, when Ottomans are launching the most intense attacks against Croatia. During this time, fortress was under care of the Uskoks, whose Captain Petar Kružić defended Klis against both the Ottomans and the Venetians for two and half decades.

But when Petar Kružić died in combat with Turks on the shore of Solin on 12th March 1537, crew was forced to surrender the fortress. Thus the strongest Croatian fortress in Dalmatia came into Ottoman hands, with the river of Jadro now being a border between Ottoman Klis and Venetian Split. Already in the same year the Ottomans founded the Klis-Lika Sanjak, with seat in Klis. Around 1580 the Sanjak was divided into Lika and Klis Sanjaks.

In the early 1596 around a hundred Croatian rebels led by Split nobles Ivan Alberti and Nikola Cindro managed to take the fortress by surprise. They were soon joined by Uskoks as well as volunteers from Poljica, Kaštela, Brač and elsewhere. But the Ottoman reply was quick, and soon the fortress and its 1 500 defenders were besieged by some 8 000 Ottoman troops. In the late May a relief force of 1 000 soldiers led by commander of the Croatian Military Frontier, General Juraj Lenković. Lenković’s army was defeated underneath the fortress by Ottoman – Wlach force numbering 10 000 men, with Alberti, Cindro and over a thousand other Croatian troops having been killed in the fighting. With this defeat further defense became impossible, and the fortress surrendered on 31st May of the same year. But primary responsibility for this defeat in fact lies on the Venice, which had prevented the major Croatian, Papal and Neapolitan forces from assisting Lenković in his relief effort.

From then on, nothing major happened around the fortress for the next 50 years.

During the Candian war in March 1648, some 10 000 Venetian soldiers led by general Leonardo Foscolo and with significant assistance of local population under brothers Janko and Šimun Marjanović, priest Stjepan Sorić and Vuk Mandušić, laid siege to Klis which was at the time defended by some 1 000 Ottomans. Following the ten weeks of bloody fighting during which some defensive positions were taken and retaken multiple times in a row, Turks left Klis on 31st March under agreed terms of surrender.

After conquering Klis, Venetians organized it as a separate administrative area under a providour. Venetian rule lasted until 1797 when control of the fort passes to Austria. In 1805 the fort was taken by the French, to be retaken by Austria in 1813. Then it remained the part of the Habsburg Monarchy until 1918. With the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, Klis shares the fate of other Croatian lands.

Development of the Fortress

Current appearance of the fort is a result of centuries of architectural evolution. Fortress evolved from a relatively simple Illyrian hillfort (gradina) and then the Roman fort over medieval Croatian and Hungaro-Croatian town, and then the Ottoman, Venetian and finally Austrian fort.

Ancient fort was located at the area of current third defensive circle, the highest ground on the hill. Nothing of it survives today: numerous rebuilds and repairs due to combat damage had left basically nothing of the original construction.

Early Croatian rule saw addition of the second defensive circle, with the first defensive circle being added even later. Medieval fort had several tall towers which were later removed and replaced by low-lying bastions, much more resistant to cannon fire. First mention of architects working on the fort by name is that of artisans from Korčula, Marko Pavlović and Ivan Karlović. During his tenure as commander, Captain Petar Kružić took care of maintaining the fort. Shortage of money and resources – by that time Klis was merely an enclave of freedom surrounded by hostile territory – saw him travelling all over Europe begging for help. Popes Leon X, Clement VII and Paul III had on several occasions sent assistance in food, weapons and money. Much of it went to repairing the fort, and it was likely at this time that the tall Kružić’s tower had been built at the highest area of the fortress.

While frequent Ottoman sieges had caused major damage, the last siege and the fall of the fort into Ottoman hands did not significantly damage the fort. During the over a century of Ottoman rule there seems to have been no architectural evolution, but rather only the occasional repairs to already existing structures. Majority of currently visible fortifications date to 17th and 18th centuries, after liberation of fortress from the Ottoman rule in 1648 when the fort had been heavily damaged from artillery fire and mining. Venetian rule saw the construction of several bastions in the first and third defensive circle, leaving the fortress an architecturally and temporally complex object with dominance of elements constructed in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Venetian reconstruction of Klis began immediately following its conquest, under generals Leonard Foscolo and Ferdinand Scot. Project itself was overseen by military engineers Alessandro Maglio, Gionno di Namur and Vincenzio Bersaglio. Ten years later works on the fortress were entrusted to the engineer Guiseppo Santini, but he most likely still used Maglio’s original plans.

During the first two decades of their rule, Venetians carried out the most extensive reconstruction effort in the fort’s history, changing somewhat even its shape and extent. Most obvious change was removal of the medieval towers and their replacement with low-lying bastions and thick walls. Two major bastions were named after the first providour of Klis Marco Bembo and the general providur of Dalmatia Alviseo Malipiero, during whose tenure they were built.

Nevertheless, geography of the rock means that even the current fortifications still follow the basic contours of their medieval predecessors. Fort retained its division into three circles of walls, within which the existing water cisterns were repaired and new ones constructed; also built were weapons, munitions and equipment stores, soldiers’ quarters for the fort’s crew (now numbering some 300 soldiers and officers) and the providour’s palace. In 1746 was carried out the last Venetian renovation which saw reconstruction of the eastern part part of the first defensive circle, while other walls saw some repairs.

But as the Ottoman threat had subsided, Venetians lost interest in maintaining the fortress. It was thus in a very poor shape when Austrians took it over. There were no major construction works during the first Austrian or the French period, with only some repair and maintenance work having been done. Second Austrian period however saw some architectural changes in the fort. Specifically, several decayed objects were removed, first and second entrance were repaired and the new gunpowder magazine constructed.

Despite all the changes, fort has retained its medieval ground plan and basic construction, as nature of the terrain prevented major changes to its architecture.

Layered nature of the fort combined with commanding position made it nearly unconquerable. Even if the attackers managed to take one defensive layer, defenders could simply fall back to the next one. Each next defensive circle is at the higher elevation than the previous one, making attackers an easy target as they navigate the winding pathways towards the next door. It is thus unsurprising that the fortress was never conquered by a direct assault.

Klis Fortress is some 300 meters long with maximum width of 70 meters. It has height above sea of 360 meters and overlooks roads leading through the Klis gate.

Klis Town

Town of Klis is located just below the rock the actual fort is located on. While not architecturally part of the fortress, it should not be ignored in any discussion of the fortress as it played significant tactical and strategic role in any sieges. Town was fortified by a moderately tall and thick wall, thus playing the role of the de facto first layer of the fort’s defences, forcing the enemy to engage in siege operations before even reaching the fort proper. Should the enemy ignore or fail to take the town, it could play a second important role as the fort’s source of fresh water. Namely, while fortress itself lacks any sources of water other than the rainfall cisterns located in each of the three circles, the town had several freshwater wells. It is thus unsurprising that both the Mongols and the Ottomans conquered the town before making even a first attempt at storming the fortress itself (an endeavour in which both had failed, with the former being fought back and the latter only obtaining the fortress via a surrender agreement after decades of intense on-and-off fighting).

Town also played an important political role. Having become a free royal city following Bela IV’s charter, it had its own notary, city seal and the court of law (“kliški stol” or “the Klis Table”). Important families elected the political leader, who represented the town but was not the military commander of the fortress.

This could cause major problems with choosing the fort’s commander. Following the extinction of Croatian Trpimirović dynasty and the personal union with Hungary in the 11th century under the Arpad dynasty, Klis becomes the seat of the viceroy of Croatia or other times merely of some of the Croatian major noble families. But the local nobility intensely protested any attempts to install outsiders, especially foreigners, as commanders. Thus in the 13th century the fort was – in part as a consequence of Mongol invasion of 1241 – 2 – given to Knights Templar for a short period of time.

Fortification System and Type

Shape and size of the Klis fortress are determined by the terrain it is built onto. Fortress is located on the stony outcrop or rocky eminence which is inaccessible from three sides. The only access to the fortress is a pathway which winds around the outcrop’s southwestern side and leads to the first entrance. Outcrop is narrow and uneven, rising sharply towards its highest point of 358 meters above the sea at the positions Malipiero and Sperun.

In terms of ground plan, the fortress is of uneven polygonal shape. Its greatest extent is 304 meters in the east-west direction with maximum width of 53 meters. Outermost perimeter of the fortress measures 725 meters and mostly follows the line of the older medieval fortification. Fortress itself is of the complex construction, having gradually expanded over time resulting in presence of multiple (three) defensive lines. Fortress was very well built up, with various objects covering approximately one-third of its 8842 m2 surface.

Walls are of irregular shape as demanded by necessity of conforming to the terrain. Walls themselves are relatively thin, with maximum thickness of no more than two to three meters, and are constructed of cut stone facings with rubble filling. Outer face of the northern walls reaches height of up to nine meters, while the cliffs on which they are constructed reach height of up to 40 meters from the cliff base to the wall foundation.

System of Defense

Klis was built on a highly defensive position which nevertheless allowed it command of the surrounding area. Steep cliffs and multiple layers of defense allowed the fortress to hold out for a long time against even a far superior enemy, combining the concept of defense-in-depth with mutual support of multiple defensive positions. Most significant for defense of the fortress were positions on the northern and the western side, which were most often under enemy threat. These positions were thus best fortified, at first with tall towers and then with strong bastions which could resist improved siege artillery. Gun ports were shaped so as to allow firing in multiple directions from each defensive position.

First Defensive Circle

First defensive circle is the historically most recent layer of fortifications.

FIRST ENTRANCE

Current first entrance is probably the chronologically newest part of the fortress. It was built by Austrians in 1820s in the place of older 17th century Venetian entrance (Porta del Primo Recinto). Late medieval entrance into the fortress had been located in the similar place but somewhat more northwards. This entrance and the nearby medieval fortifications had been almost entirely destroyed during the Venetian siege of the fortress in 1648 AD.

Entrance has double doors: during the siege, empty space between the two doors would be filled with earth and rocks, thus reinforcing the doors against breaching attempts, be they battering rams, siege engines or cannon fire.

Immediately upon passing through the first entrance one comes upon the guardhouse.

FORWARD POSITION (AVANZATO)

Forward position flanks the entrance from the northwestern side. Avanzato position was built following the Venetian siege which devastated older medieval fortifications. Avanzato is first mentioned as a defensive position in 1648. Its purpose was protection of the first and the second entrances which became a weak point in fort’s defense due to their positions combined with increasing usage of gunpowder artillery in sieges.

Venetians built the Foscolo bastion at the flat ground to the west of Avanzato, but the bastion was removed in 1657 AD. Following the removal of Foscolo bastion the area remained unfortified for some ten years, after which temporary wooden fortifications were erected. These were eventually replaced by a double line of fortifications.

Venetians had rennovated Avanzato several times by the mid-18th century. Last rennovations saw the addition of the protruding bow on the northern side of the position. Resulting L-shape saw the position named as Tenaglie (scissors).

Entrance from the front position is defended by small door and corridor. Door is too small for an adult to comfortably enter, and the corridor itself is narrow with very low roof. This means that any attackers exiting on the other side become an easy target. Corridor (Caponera or Casamatta) has a row of double arrow loops which allowed the defenders to directly defend the position via gunfire should Avanzato be lost. Above it was the low parapet with two cannon ports.

Second Defensive Circle

Second defensive circle is an older layer of fortifications, added throughout the early Middle Ages by Croatian rulers of the Trpimirović dynasty. In fact, fortress used to be the seat of dukes and later kings of the Trpimirović dynasty. Charter of Duke Trpimir from 9th century mentions the Klis Fortress as his seat and home.

SECOND ENTRANCE

Second entrance (Porta del Secondo Recinto) used to be the main entrance to the fortress during the age of independent Croatian state (892 – 1102). It was significantly damaged in the siege of 1648 and completely rebuilt by the Venetians. Entrance had a smaller defensive antechamber which was removed in the 19th century. Current look the entrance received during the Austrian rule in 1820s, when its dome was rennovated while the doors were remade in the Classicist style akin to the main entrance.

Entrance itself is fortified, defended from the terrace atop the gate as well as the wall flanking the pathway and the Oprah tower nearby. Path towards the entrance is sharply inclined, making the climb an ardous task for an armored soldier in combat. Path was paved in 1930s.

OPRAH TOWER

This medieval tower used to be the most important defensive position of the western part of the fortress. Tower is first mentioned in the report of Duke Pavao III Šubić in 1355 under the name Oprack. Ottomans named it the “Pasha’s tower”, while the Venetians in the mid-17th century gave it the name “Torretta” which was later also used by Austrians. Despite these many names throughout history, it always kept its original Croatian name, Oprah tower.

Tower displays several phases of construction: medieval, which gave it the escarpment from the foundations to the platform, to Barroque which gave it the remaining northern part of the crenelation with two cannon ports.

Lower areas of the tower are solid, filled with rock and dirt which provided it significant resillience against enemy siege engines and artillery. During the medieval times, all the way until the 15th century, Oprah tower was architecturally isolated from the rest of the fortress and was reached via a wooden draw bridge. Only later was it physically connected to the main fortress. Heavily damaged in the siege of 1648, the tower was repaired and reconstructed following the Venetian conquest of the fortress. During these reconstructions its height was significantly reduced due to increased prominance of gunpowder artillery.

From this position one can see both the first defensive circle and the gates to the third defensive circle.

MEGDAN CORTINA

Cortina (Cortina verso il Meidan) or the curtain wall connects the Oprah tower with the remote eastern Scala position. It has numerous loopholes, while by its southern side is the narrow guards pathway which served also as a defensive position. All the way until the 17th century the cortina had typical Medieval appearance with crenellated battlements whose height was somewhat lower than the current wall.

SCALA POSITION

Located below the western side of Bembo bastion, Scala position is the smaller space of irregular square shape. It is enclosed by relatively thin walls which originally sported four rifle loopholes but now have two cannon openings. Name likely comes from the approach stairway at its southern side. Purpose of the Scala was defense of cortina towards Megdan as well as the road which leads towards the main entrance along the northern side of the fortress.

CANNONEER (ARTILLERY) BARRACKS

Artillery barracks were built on the 19th century during the Austrian rule, following removal of the old guardhouse. Upper floor of the building was destroyed in 1931, but was rebuilt in 2021. Cannon set up currently in front of the barracks is original example of the fort’s artillery, and from this side it is possible to see the town of Klis below the fortress.

INFANTRY BARRACKS

Infantry barracks were the place where most of the fort’s garrison lived, while some of the troops were housed in other parts of the fortress as well as the town below it.

FLANKING FORTIFICATIONS

Flanking fortifications extended in front of the artillery barracks. Larger, elongated one was called the “middle” (Mezzo”) position. During the Venetian period the guardhouse was located eastwards of the position, as well as the two smaller quarters and a fortified entrance which allowed communication with the eastern and southern part of the fortress.

SECRET ENTRANCE

Secret entrances or rather sally ports were always a major aspect of fortifications’ design. Klis Fortress is said to have had several of these. This particular entrance is located at the wall where it joins the flanking tower. It takes the form of a walled-off gate. The wall inside the gate was built of rocks with no mortar, allowing the garrison to break down the wall with a mace in order to leave by a goat path for supplies. After returning, the troop would fill in the entrance again and cover it with ivy so that the entrance would become impossible to see from the outside.

Secret entrance was frequently used by Uskoks during the Ottoman attacks and sieges of the fortress. It was used to bring in troops, supplies, as well as the water from wells in the surrounding area since the fortress itself had only water cisterns. In one instance, Uskok commander Tvrdoslavić acted as a traitor, leading an Ottoman detachment into the fortress through the secret entrance, only to lead them into an ambush where they were cut down.

One of earliest legends connected to the secret entrance concerns the Byzantine reconquest of the Roman castrum (at the site of the current Citadel) that had been taken by the Avars. Avars, having realized they could not take the fortress by force, ambushed a Roman patrol and donned their armor and weapons. Having thus gained the entrance to the fortress, Avars opened the door and overcame the garrison. But during the Justinian’s reconquest, Byzantines entered the fortress through the secret entrance and evicted the Avars. This second secret entrance however is unknown to us, and most likely no longer exists.

One of fort’s toilets is located nearby.

THE SMITHY

The smithy was a basic requirement for every settlement and military installation. Every fort had to have its smithy for forging and repairing military equipment, armor and weapons. Smithy was thus also present in the Klis fortress, but the current smithy is a modern reconstruction aimed at displaying the tools and art of smithing to the visitors. It is thus completely open, and displays the furnace as well as the bellows.

CISTERNS

There was no natural well of water in the fortress itself. Since the fortress was often exposed to long sieges, this was a major issue for the defenders. For this reason, multiple above-ground cisterns were constructed for the purpose of collecting rain water. Out of a total of seven water cisterns, two – the largest ones – are located in the second defensive circle, near the starway leading to entrance to the third circle. This double cistern was likely built during the Venetian rule.

Small winding stairs to the western side of the cisterns lead to the square platform at which until the 18th century were several small quarters and then the large infantry barracks which were destroyed in fire in 1938.

SOUTHERN WALL

Steep incline leads into the southern part of the curtain wall or the Varoš cortina (Cortina sopra il Borgo). As a fortification element of the fort’s defensive system it appeared likely already during the late Middle Ages, with its purpose being protection of the central part of the fortress from the southern side. Not one of the objects that were once near the wall – small quarters, gunpowder store or small hospital – were preserved, having been removed by Austrians during rennovation of the fort in 1820s.

At the eastern side of the cortina are two smaller side entrances, now walled off. These secret entrances allowed the garrison to enter and leave the fortress while it was under siege.

At the western side of the wall is the Madonna position, named so after the Church of the Assumption of Mary in the town of Klis. Venetians made an entrance there in the 17th century, the New Door (Porta Nuova, Porta della Sortita). These doors were likely walled off in the second half of the 18th century, while the Madonna position was expanded in its western part in the 1820s.

Third Defensive Circle (Citadel)

Third defensive circle or the citadel is the final layer of fortifications, and represents the fort’s dominant as well as the final defense of the fortress. Citadel had never been taken by assault in its history.

This is also the most historically significant part of the fortress. In this place first stood the Illyrian fort, and then the Roman castrum. Atop its foundations was built the early Croatian fortress, the center of the Croatian Maritime County and the seat of medieval rulers of Croatia.

THIRD ENTRANCE

Third entrance is approached by the wide paved stairway. In front of the entrance is the small defensive courtyard (a guardpost?) with loopholes (Barriera). Entrance itself is a tall single-storey building, which was founded in early Middle Ages but was rebuilt several times. In the mid-17th century it had a roof and entrance (Porta del Terso Recinto) with the drawbridge at the southern face. In the mid-18th century Venetians completely rebuilt it, expanding the western face and adding to it an entrance and two cannon ports. Final expansion was in 1763; during it the room at the top was given a terrace instead of a roof, with the terrace receiving a parapet with cannon and gun ports.

Smaller external stairway at the western side behind the entrance leads to the upper floor of the building which has only one larger square room vaulted by a semicircular dome, called the casamate. Its two western cannon ports defended the approach to the third entrance as well as the third defensive circle in general.

SIDE TOWER

Side tower or flanking tower (Torre Bastionata) is a tall tower of irregular square shape. It used to be the entrance to the third defensive circle. Tower was built during the 18th century (finished in 1763) with the purpose of defending this part of the wall and part of the Varoš (Klis town). Its casamate is accessed from the northern side, while walls have smaller cannon openings. Just like the entrance building, it too has a terrace with parapates and cannon openings.

By entering the courtyard in front of the third entrance the attacker was forced to walk across a small wooden bridge which led into the side tower. This bridge however was in fact a drawbridge, and could be raised in event of the attack.

ARMORY

Armory was constructed in the mid-17th century.

Today it is being used as Uskok Armory exhibition space. It contains the exhibition showing Uskok weaponry and clothing, as well as the illustrations and text showing history of the fortress. It also has the statue of Petar Kružić, commander of the fortress. In 1532, when the Ottomans besieged the Klis fortress and – with Venetian help – captured the town of Klis, Petar Kružić arrived with an army and defeated them both.

ARMORY POSITION

In the mid-18th century this area was known as a weapons storage / armory position (Piazetta del Monizion) while the western part of its southern wall was called Corner (Mura Corner). Next to the stairway behind the entrance is one of the oldest water cisterns. It is of an irregular square shape, with semicircular roof above which is a terrace with a crown. Opposite to the cistern is the weapons storage (Munizione) which Venetians had used to store tools while during the Austrian rule it served to store cannon carriages. At the eastern side of the building was an older and smaller armory which was removed in the early 19th century.

OLD GUNPOWDER MAGAZINE

Old gunpowder magazine (Depositio da Polvere) is located in the immediate proximity of the armory position. This “old” gunpowder magazine is actually quite new, having been constructed by Venetians in the 18th century. It is a square room with four-sided roof. At the western side in front of the entrance is a small annex, which used to have a single-sided roof.

During the 1830s Austrians built a water tank nearby, which was topped by a crown from an older cistern.

SMALL QUARTERS

Small quarters are reached by climbing from the armory onto higher, flatter part of the fortification. These were at first used as a flat of the armorer, and later as quarters for officers and soldiers, to be finally used as a biscuit / hardtack storage. This object is accessed from the terrace of the nearby building of the Third Entrance, was founded likely in the second half of the 17th century but was later expanded multiple times. In 1966 a short-lived museum exhibition on history of Klis was held there.

DUKE’S HOUSE

Duke’s house or providour’s flat was always the heart of the fortress. It was built on the foundations of the oldest buildings from the Roman time, which were followed by the seat of the Croatian kings and then command buildings of the Klis captains and dukes (Duke’s House – Kneževa kuća, Knesi Cuch). Tower on the western end of the flat is today called the Tower of Petar Kružić.

House itself is located at a rocky outcrop on the northern side of the small quarters and the armory position. It originally consisted of the ground level and one floor covered with four-sided roof. Internally it was divided into two larger and three smaller rooms, with main entrance on the narrow western side. Main entrance is only partially preserved today. Venetian sources state providour’s office (Offici povisorio) was located there, or else a scriptorium (La Cancelaria). On the ground level were the storage spaces and rooms for officers, guards and servants. On the upper floor were officers’ rooms, sitting room and the living room / parlour, servants’ room, kitchen and the larder.

Early in the French rule the providour’s flat was for short time used by the judge and his chancellor, but had to abandon it due to disrepair. After Austrians fixed it in the 19th century, it served as seat of the fort command and the engineering.

BEMBO AND MALIPIERO BASTIONS

At the extreme western end of this defensive line is the Bembo bastion, largest artillery position in the fortress. Originally, this was the place where Kružić’s tower and positions Speranza and Elsa had been located, but the area had been rebuilt after Kružić’s tower had to be removed.

This bastion of the irregular rectangular shape is denoted by partly destroyed tall parapet with wide cannon ports, while the parapets of the western and southern wall were reduced to the level of the platform. Towards East the curtain wall or cortina runs behind the church to connect the Bembo bastion with the five-pointed Malipiero bastion.

Malipiero is a tall bastion with narrow cannon loopholes. Below it is an archway which leads to the eastern Maggiore position.

CHURCH OF ST VID

Church of Saint Vid is located between the bastions of Bembo and Malipiero. Church was originally an Islamic mosque that was built at the place of the previous Catholic church immediately after the fall of Klis to Ottomans in 1537.

Church is the symbol of centuries of foreign aggression against Croatia. It is the only building surviving from the period of the Ottoman rule of the fortress. It was originally a mosque built on the place of the pre-Romanic early Croatian church which had been there since at least 10th century. After fort’s liberation it was converted into a church of St Vid, and the first mass was held immediately the day after.

Architecturally, the church is the type of single-room domed mosque of square floor plan that used to have a round dome. Such mosques are really all imitations of Justinian’s cathedral of Hagia Sophia in Costantinople, which got converted into a mosque following the Ottoman conquest of 1453. Following the conversion into the church, the dome was replaced by an octagonal roof.

Light is provided by four square windows, two at the southern and two at the northern wall. Inside of the object is reached by stairs set into the tall vaulted doors in the southern face of the building. Internal height of the church from the floor to the ceiling is 7,3 meters, while the current stone floor is significantly taller than the original Ottoman floor.

Transition from the square foundation into the circular dome is achieved through tromps. Between the corner niches (tromps) and the walls are eight connected arches which rest on the consoles of square stalactite shape. Dome itself is made from gypsum to reduce weight.

In the part of the western wall is the shallow rectangular niche with a stone washbasin, decorated by shallow reliefs. This Baroque washbasin dates to the 17th century and used to stand in the providour’s flat before being moved to the church and having a large stone shell added to it. To the right side of the entrance, on the short eight-sided column, is a small holy water font marked with year 1658 (likely when it was set up).

Above the entrance is the stone tablet with Latin inscription. Translated, inscription reads:

1743

What the faith had built

faith will preserve.

In the church there used to be three altairs: main altair consecrated to St. Vid, protector of the fortress; altair of the Blessed Virgin and the altair of St. Barbara. But nothing of the church inventory had been preserved.

To the eastern side of the chirch the Venetians built a small sacristy, water cistern and the chaplain’s flat which was destroyed during the Second World War. Second, somewhat older and larger cistern is located in the space between these objects and the Malipiero bastion. After taking the fortress the Venetians demolished the minaret which had been located to the western side of the mosque and instead built there the officers’ quarters which remained there until being removed in the 19th century.

POSITION MAGGIORE AND THE NEW POWDER STORE

This is the second-largest defensive position in the fort. From the northern side it is protected by the tall and wide parapets which contain numerous gun ports. This position oversaw the road in the canyon by which arrival of the enemy from north was expected. Having expanded it on the northern side, Venetians built a set of single-storey buildings in the middle. These first served as quarters of Venetian officers, then of militia soldiers and finally as flats for the fort’s commander. Austrians, having gained the fort in the early 19th century, removed the Venetian buildings and instead built the New Powder Store leaning against the Maggiore position and the Malipiero bastion, that is, in the northwestern corner of the Maggiore bastion.

This building served as exactly that until the Second World War when it was turned into an Italian prison. New Powder Store is of an irregular rectangular plan with a smaller annex in front of the entrance, and walls up to three meters thick carry an arch and a two-sided roof.

SPERUN POSITION

This is the most protruding position of the third defensive circuit as well as the fort itself. This narrow “prow” overlooks the Ozrna on Mosor as well as the road which passes underneath Klis towards north.

Up until the Venetian conquest of the fortress the position had a tall square tower, named the Duke’s Tower (Kneževa kula). Tower was heavily damaged during the Venetian siege of 1648 and later removed. It was replaced by a plateau which on the eastern side had a wall with a gun port. Former tall parapets with gun ports of Sperun are now only partially preserved – only low parapets are left. Position, and the fort itself, were last used in the military capacity during the Second World War when anti-aircraft guns were positioned there.

Petar Kružić

Petar Kružić was Uskok captain and duke of Klis. He is also one of the most known leaders in the Croatian-Ottoman wars. He gained glory by organizing Uskoks to resist the Ottoman siege of Klis from 1512 until 1537. Ottomans owed much of their success to constant raids by light cavalry Akincis, and Kružić adopted this strategy, turning it against the Ottomans. But he is best known for his end.

During (yet another) great Ottoman siege of the Klis fortress in 1537, Kružić again went to get reinforcements from Senj to save Klis. For the first time, he also gained assistance from the king Ferdinand Habsbourg. With a force of Uskoks, German mercenaries and Papal troops numbering some 2 000, Kružić disembarked in the port of Vranjic near Split, destroying several Ottoman forts. But just as it seemed that the blockade had been broken, Ottoman cavalry arrived from the Bosnia. German mercenaries immediately ran towards the ships (cavalry usually beats infantry), while Kružić and his 200 Uskoks remained to fight against the 2 000 Ottoman cavalry. During the battle, Atil-aga cut off Kružić’s head. After Kružić’s death and defeat of the relief army, Uskoks in Klis decided to surrender the fortress. Ottomans allowed them to leave with their possessions, women and children. Majority left to Senj where they continued to fight against the Ottomans. Ottomans themselves would rule in Klis for the next 111 years.

Klis Fortress in the Media

Game of Thrones

Game of Thrones is the TV series which ran from 2011 until 2019. In the series, the Klis Fortress acted out the role of the city of Meereen, which was a major part of the character arc of Daenerys Targaryen. Specifically, several episodes of the fourth and fifth seasons of the Games of Thrones were filmed on the fortress during the September and October of 2013 and 2014. Physical look of the fortress was significantly altered via CGI so that the south-European fort could act the part of the de-facto Arabian city.

Scene of crucifixion of nobles was filmed below the Bembo bastion, leading up to the third entrance.
Execution of the liberated slave that had killed a Harpy’s son was filmed in front of the infantry barracks.
Daenerys’s escape was filmed at the stars leading towards the Third Entrance.
Green room for Emilia Clarke was is the Uskok Armory.
Entrance to the dragons’ cave was represented by the tunnel on the top of the fortress.
Poor part of Meereen was represented by the very top of the fortress, until the Sperun position.

CGI alterations of the fortress included great pyramid added to the top of the fortress, large wall encircling the fortress and the town (Klis Varoš), addition of the second entrance onto the Bastion Bembo, and wooden temples that were physically built on the fortress (infantry barracks and the water wells between the infantry barracks and the third entrance).

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