War FantasyWar at Sea – 18th Century Ship of the Line
18th century was a century of sailing and naval expansion in Europe. Major discoveries had been made in previous centuries, such as reaching Americas in the late 15th and early 16th centuries (discovery of Americas – 1492, discovery of the Pacific Ocean – 1513, discovery of Peru – 1528). But the advancement in sailing techniques, especially in the second half of the 18th century, had made sailing far less dangerous than it used to be.
Despite all the advances, bad living and sanitary conditions on ships still took many lives. Hunger, thirst, dysentery, scurvy and tuberculosis were a permanent company, and there was always the possibility of contracting one of exotic diseases such as the yellow fever. Deaths due to disease far exceeded deaths due to battle or shipwreck, with scorbut being the primary killer, followed by various fevers. Large number of people living in crowded and unsanitary conditions made epidemics a regular occurence.
Discipline was harsh, with many punishments being physical. Still, unnecessary cruelty was rare.
To protect the trade routes and outposts, powerful navy was necessary. Most wars in fact were won or lost on the sea. Three 18th century battles basically decided outcome of wars:
Autumn 1781: Saviors of Independence
By winning the battle in the Chesapeake Bay, French squadron commander de Grasse forced the English to capitulate in Yorktown and accept negotiations which would lead to ultimate recognition of the US independence. On the 28th August 1781, English Admiral Hood arrived to Chesapeake to reinforce general Cornwallis who had fortified himself in Yorktown. Having not found the French Fleet, he left for New York.
De Grasse, reinforced by Ternay’s squadron, landed his expeditionary corps and anchored his 36 warships in the Chesapeake Bay. English squadron under command of Admiral Graves arrived on 5th September, but the 21-ship strong squadron was overwhelmed by De Grasse’s fleet. Cornwallis, unable to resupply due to French naval blockade, capitulated in early October.
It is not wrong to say that De Grasse and his 36 ships changed the world forever.
Spring 1794: Saving the Revolution
France was at the border of starvation. Revolution and the currency crash meant that it could not buy food abroad. To solve the problem, Committee gave Rear Admiral Van Stabel the ministarial powers and sends him to buy wheat in the United States. In the Chesapeake Bay, Van Stabel managed to collect a fleet of 138 ships which had cargo of 240 000 cents (1 cent = 100 kg) of flour, rice, sugar etc. English were aware of the mission, and so convoy had to be protected. Admiral Villaret has only one task: protect the convoy.
Villaret set sail and on 28th May engaged the English squadron of Admiral Howe. In the battle which lasted until 1st June, French fleet was soundly beaten. English celebrated the victory which was later called “Glorious First of June” – but the joke is on the English. Villaret had achieved his goal, and Van Stabel’s convoy reached France. His convoy may have saved the revolution.
1798: Battle of the Aboukir Bay and End of a Campaign
Napoleon Bonaparte won a victory in Egypt – but this victory was quickly made irrelevant by British control of sea lanes. With 13 ships, Nelson destroyed French fleet at Aboukir and with it, Napoleon’s eastern dream.
Basics of Navigation
To accurately determine position of the ship, it is necessary to find out the geographic length and width. Geographic width (latitude) is determined from the angle between the Sun and the surface of the Earth at noon. Geographic length (longitude) is determined by determining the local time (by observing the Sun at noon) and comparing it to time of referential meridian (Greenwich or Paris). Longitude is equal to difference between the local time and the referential time, that is the time at the referential meridian, translated into degrees – 15 degrees for each hour. It is thus obvious that accurate navigation is only possible after discovery of the chronometer.
Building the Ship
Ship was first designed by the naval engineer – to become one, a person had to go through seven to eight years of education. The design had to ensure seaworthiness, combat ability and endurance. Once the ship was designed and calculations made, design was brought to the naval secretary for approval. Secretary also decided in which shipyard the ship would be built. Once this had been decided, preparations for building would begin. First step was drawing a plan of the ship, in natural size, in the shipyard where the ship would be built. This allowed the carpenters to have a template for work.
Ships of the Line were built of wood – and this wood had to be available not only in massive quantities, but also in appropriate types. Most important wood for building ships was oak. To build a single ship of the line, it was necessary to cut down some hundred hectares of centennial oak forest – 3 000 oaks were needed just for the keel and the ribs. Other types of wood were also necessary, however – pine and fir for the masts and yards, elm for the braces and gun carriages, beech for oars, holm oak for axles, walnut and poplar for statues. Trees had to be of a proper shape for building particular parts of the ship, and sometimes trees were grown to be of such a shape.
Supply of wood was a major issue: by the mid-18th century England, a major naval power, had basically run out of wood and had to rely on wood from colonies and other countries for its fleets. Squared oak pieces were soaked in seawater to make shaping easier, and then were kept in storage. Pine and fir were always soaked to prevent them from losing the resin.
Building a ship took many months. First the keel was laid down, followed by the bow and stern posts. After this other elements of the hull skeleton were set up, and onto all of this came the planking. Decks were laid onto floor beams. Floor beams are connected to ribs (vertical timbers) and supported by horizontal and vertical knee braces.
Planks were bent to conform to the hull form prior to the installation, which was done by steaming them. Equipment was installed gradually, deck by deck. To ensure watertightness, gaps between planks were sealed with hemp impregnated with cooked resin. Entire hull was then coated in tar (pitch). Both were applied molten. At the waterline, hull was some 2 feet thick.
Initial ropes could be 200 meters long, but after twisting (three or more ropes to form one larger rope) the end length would be about one-third of the initial length. Ropes are impregnated with tar and coated in tallow to make them more resistant to water.
When HMS Victory launched in 1765., she had taken six years to build with a final cost of 63 176 pounds (GBP). While this would be equivalent of 14 million pounds today, using inflation is actually an incorrect measure of cost. British GDP in 1765 was 126,13 million pounds, with governmental spending / budget of 12,02 million pounds. What this means is that the HMS Victory had cost some 0,05% of GDP and 0,53% of government’s budget. For comparison, a single Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carrier costs 3,8 billion GBP (4,74 billion USD), which is 0,15% of GDP (3,08 trillion GBP) and 0,32% of British government’s budget (1,19 trillion GBP). In these measures, HMS Victory today would cost 1,54 billion GBP compared to GDP. (USS Gerald R Ford, at 12,8 billion USD, will have cost 0,055% of US GDP). It is thus no surprise that in 1794, shortly after the start of the French Revolutionary Wars (1792), Royal Navy had only five first rates (2 500 t, 100+ guns) and nine second rates (2 200 t, 80 – 98 guns) in service, both rates being three-decker ships. By 1814., there were eight first rates and seven second rates in service. For comparison, number of two-decker ships of the line (3rd and 4th rates) was much greater: 79 in total in 1794., and 113 in 1814.
Cannons were made by casting. Molten iron would be poured into vertically-set clay molds. When the iron has cooled down and mold removed, cannon barrel was then drilled by a water-powered drill.
18th century cannon boring machineryIn the late 18th century, ships started receiving copper sheathing for the underwater portions of the hull. This technique had two major advantages. Firstly, copper protected the wood from sea water as well as from attack by shipworm, barnacles and other marine growth which could affect wood’s structure. Secondly, copper prevented the marine growth from forming – that is, it prevented the accumulation of algae and barnacles – and also provided a smoother surface than the wood. Result is that the ships with no copper sheathing lost speed as the growth accumulated and had to have the bottom periodically cleaned, while those with sheathing could go for long periods without cleaning. This practice of copper sheathing was used in England since 1670, and during the 18th century it spread to almost all countries building the sailing ships.
Naval arsenal was not just a shipyard, but also contained all the necessary workships for maintenance of the ship itself, its equipment and weaponry. Work was hard, and children as young as six or seven were being employed. Work time was about the same in all ports: in summer from 5 in the morning to 7 in the evening, and in the winter from 7 in the morning to 7 in the evening. Workers have right to one hour of rest daily, and wages are not paid regularly: shipyards would often owe more than a month’s pay. In 1778, daily pay of the apprentice was 5 – 10 cents, foreman 14 – 28, smith 28 – 30, and carpenter 32 – 46.
Living conditions in the arsenal were bad. Dozen workers are living in one room. Climate can be harsh in some areas. In Brest in 1709, the sea froze and temperature fell to 20 degrees below zero. Men, women and children were dying of the cold and the militia was forced to use weapons to keep peace and order. Along with the masters and the apprentices, worst jobs were taken by convicts: such as lifting large wooden parts and twisting the ropes.
Shipbuilding also helped develop secondary activities necessary to provide materials.
Gilded Galleons
Up until the very recently, humans had always attempted to make their creations as beautiful as possible. Ships were not an exception: they were decorated by carvings from apple wood from tips of the masts all the way to the rudder. There were many famous ship sculptors, and many of them had gone to schools specialized in naval art. And after the ship was finished, a painter would paint the portrait of the ship. Models of ships were also often made, which also served to help education of students in naval academies.
Ships were often overdecorated, which could negatively affect both the seaworthiness and its combat capabilities. From the middle of the 18th century decorations became much simpler, and nearly disappeared by the early 19th century.
Until the end of the 18th century, ship’s prow was decorated by rich decoration which included figurehead. These were highly artistic and could be of various motives: statue of the reigning king, military leaders, captains, female busts, animals, mythological creatures or coats of arms. Figurehead usually symbolized the name of the ship: French ship La Carmagnole, named after a popular Revolutionary dance, had for its figurehead a guillotine.
Stern of AmsterdamOcean, seen here, had god of sea Poseidon as a figureheadLaunching the Ship
Launching the ship is always a big ceremony in the shipyard where the ship had been built. Ship would be decorated with flags and greenery. In the festivities would participate the Minister of the Navy or his representative, as well as various dignitaries and shipwrights. Ship was usually launched stern-first, or more rarely, prow-first. Slipway had to have 8 – 10% inclination to allow the ship to naturally slide into water.
Before launch, ship was being held on the slipway by a single support placed at the far rear of the ship, below the hull. This support had to be knocked out by a single strike of the maul. This was usually done by a death row convict, promised freedom should he survive the task. To avoid the now freed ship, convict had to jump into the hole dug out specifically for this purpose, allowing the ship to slide above him. If he is too slow, or suffocates from the fumes caused by heating of the tallow used to grease the slipway, convict would lose his life. The entire procedure sometimes had to be repeated.
Elements of the Ship Design
Rigging (snast)
Large ships of the line are heavy: a 120-gun ship may displace 5 000 tons of water. To move such heavy vessels with power of the wind, large sail area is necessary – 5 000 square meters for largest of ships. Masts have to be strong yet flexible, for which pine and fir trees are ideal.
Several trees may be necessary for a mast. Main mast of a 120 – 130 gun ship will consist of three parts: main mast, main topmast, and a stay. Main mast was typically some 41,5 meters tall, with 1,15 meter diameter at the base and weighted 4,6 tons. A dozen firs could be used for one mast. Topmast was some 24,7 meters tall with 0,63 meters diameter and weight of 2,5 tons, while stay was 13,7 meters tall with 0,32 meters diameter and weight of 1,35 tons. Measured from the keel to the top, main mast could reach height of up to 70 meters.
Ship of the line has a total of three masts. Looking from the bow towards the stern, these are the fore mast, main mast and mizzen mast. Each mast has various sails which call from horizontal beams called yards. As yards are perpendicular to the mast, ship of the line is said to be square-rigged.
Masts reach the keel of the ship, where they are anchored by large wooden blocks called steps.
Masts are secured from the sides by ropes, called the shrouds. There can be up to twelve shrouds at each side of the main mast. These extend from the ship’s side to the platforms on the masts, and from the platforms themselves up until the top of the masts. Deadeyes are used for adjustment as lines may stretch over time. Shrouds are connected horizontally by ratlines, pieces of rope which serve as ladders for sailors working in the rigging.
Partway up the mast is the “top”. The top is the platform which can be used as a fighting platform, but its main purpose is to serve as a base for attaching the shrouds of the upper part of the mast.
Stays are the lines stretched between the masts, providing front-to-back stability. Lines that control the sails themselves are called the running rigging.
In order to collect the sail, it must first be shortened. This is done from the deck. To collect the sail however, sailors must climb up to the yard, working from the lines suspended below the yard. For the main sail, collecting or shortening the sail is work that might take over 50 sailors standing on the yard. Sails are shortened or collected whenever there is a possibility of a storm. When collected, sail is lashed to the yard with sections of a rope called gaskets.
When unfurling the sail, gaskets are untied and coiled. Then the buntlines (lines running through the sail) and leechlines (lines running at the side) are let down, allowing the sail to drape. Clewlines at the corners are then loosed as well, allowing the corner to lower. To set the sail, sheet line at the back and the tack line at the front are hauled tight. Then the yard hoist lines are hauled to lift the yard into place. The sail is now fully set. Because the yard is connected to the mast with lines, it can rotate around the mast. This rotation is controlled by yard brace lines at the sides and sheet and tack lines at the corners. These must be carefully loosed or hauled to position the sail; all are operated from the deck level.
Triangular staysails hang between the masts to aid in maneuvers. These are especially important when ship has to sail against the wind, or close-hauled. Ship that is entirely square-rigged can sail, at best, at beam reach (as seen here and here).
The bowsprit at the front originates from the upper deck below, extending up and outwards. Bowsprit provides rigging for the foremost sails, called jibs. At the far rear of the ship is the driver or spanker sail, also used for maneuvering or to balance helm orientation.
Some yards have studding sails beams that extend laterally. These beams are used to attach studding sails which are used for added speed in good weather.
List of sails
Poop Deck (krmnica ili kasar)
Poop deck is short, raised section at the rear of the ship of the line. Its name derives from the French word for stern: la poupe. Skylight illuminates the captain’s dining cabins below. Cranes called davits are located on both sides of the poop deck, used for hoisting items to and from the ship, including the onboard boats. Shelves at the rear contain signal flags.
Quarterdeck (krmnica ili kasar)
Captain’s accomodations make up the rear of the quarter deck. These include a private toilet, a day cabin, dining area and sleeping cabin. There is also cabin for captain’s personal secretary and ship master’s cabin.
Steering wheel (ship’s wheel) sits at the center, exposed on one side but shielded overhead by the poop deck floor. Rope wraps around the steering wheel drum, extending through the quarter deck floor and all the way to the ceiling of the lower deck. Pulleys redirect the rope as it spreads to either side of the arced tiller sweep. Binnacle in front of the ship’s wheel holds two compasses for redundancy, along with a lantern which enables compasses to be seen during night.
12-pounder guns line the sides of the quarter deck. Center of the quarter deck is generally open to the upper gun deck below, and is equipped with skid beams and cradles to secure various ship’s boats.
Ship’s Boats (Brodski čamci)
Ship’s boats are located between the two walkways on the main (uppermost) deck, or quarterdeck. Boats are placed one inside another – almost like a half-Matryoshka doll – or next to each other. Largest boat is the launch. Launch is used for servicing the anchors, and can also handle ship’s cannon. Located within it or aside it is the pinnacle boat, large boat for use by captain and the officers. Admiral’s barge is next to the pinnacle boat and is larger than it. Last and the smallest boat is the cutter, used for emergencies or ferrying messages between ships. Belfry and the bell are near the boats.
Council Room (Vijećnica)
The council room is where ship’s command is located. In here the captain studies tactics to be used, determines the sailing course and gives commands. Council room is only available for use by the captain, and it serves as a headquarters, dining room, saloon and the reception hall.
In the bottom of the room, two doors allowed access to gallery at the rear of the ship. In the forward part, which is separated by the approach corridor, are the captain’s cabin on the starboard and first officer’s cabin on the port. Captain’s cabin is accessed from the council room.
Council room itself is heated by a small brazier or a tin fireplace. Seats double as chests where equipment used by members of the staff is kept. Captain’s cabin and the council room are often more comfortable than other ship’s rooms, though by no means luxurous. At least not by standard: many captains would, despite it technically being forbidden, load up entire carts of their own furniture to make sailing more comfortable. Authorities usually tended to overlook such behavior, but if it crossed the line it could cause envy in other officers.
The Great Cabin of HMS EndeavourCaptain’s cabin contains a bed, a wardrobe, and a work table.
Forecastle (Pramnica ili kaštel)
Forecastle is the frontmost part of the quarterdeck. This term is a holdover from the time when ships had raised decks at the front and the rear of the ship to serve as fighting platforms (e.g. Cog or a carrack). HMS Victory had two 68-pounder carronades at either side of the forecastle. Heavy shot paired with short barrel could deal very extensive damage at short range.
Upper Gun Deck (Drugo potpalublje s donjom baterijom topova)
Upper gun deck holds the lightest weight guns, excepting the dedicated anti-personnel weapons. On HMS Victory, the upper gun deck held 30 guns of the 12-pounder class.
Simple canvas partitions could form a small sick bay as needed in the front part of the deck. Non-commissioned officers’ cots were also hung on the upper gun deck. Skylight for the galley below it was located in the middle, and in the middle of the deck were also chests with rifles, muskets and pilots. Removable tables are hung between the guns, with chests used for benches.
In the aft of the deck were admiral’s sleeping quarters, dining quarters, and day cabin. Quarter gallery, set near the day cabin, holds a private toilet.
Dining quarters on HMS VictoryForepeak or beak
Forepeak or beak holds the smallish deck. At the rear are the roundhouses, which are accessible to officers for a private restroom experience. Forepeak itself holds six open-air toilets, called seats of ease, for use by the sailors.
Middle Gun Deck (Drugo potpalublje s donjom baterijom topova)
Middle gun deck held guns of intermediate weight, lighter than those on the lower gun deck but still heavier than the lighter-weight guns on the upper gun deck. On HMS Victory, the middle gun deck held 28 guns of the 24-pounder class. Details of ship’s armament are discussed later, in the armament section.
Middle Gun Deck of HMS VictoryShot garlands with projectiles lined the grating in the middle of the deck. The ship’s main entry port is situated in the middle of the middle gun deck. At HMS Victory, dedicated sick bay was located at the front of the middle gun deck. Behind the sick bay was the main galley for food preparation and distribution. The large iron stove had chimney which exhausted through the upper gun deck all the way to the main deck. The stove also included water condenser for distilling fresh water from the saltwater.
At the center of the deck are capstains, which are connected to those of the deck below. The rear of the deck has officers’ quarters and the wardroom for the officers to eat and congregate.
Officers’ Room (Časnička soba)
Officers’ room is located just below the council room, in the middle gun deck (second level below the main deck). This room serves as both the dining room and the sleeping quarters. Officers sleep in impromptu quarters made by canvas partitions which can be quickly removed in the case of battle. On some ships such as HMS Victory, instead of canvas partitions, foldable wooden walls were used.
To both sides of the officers’ room are officers’ toilets. Just above them, on the same level as the council room, is the captain’s bathroom.
Lower Gun Deck (Drugo potpalublje s donjom baterijom topova)
Lower gun deck is the lowest gun deck on the ship. It is above the orlop deck which gives it some distance from the waterline. Being the closest to the waterline, lower gun deck is where the heaviest guns were located. On HMS Victory, the lower gun deck mounted 30 guns of the 32-punder class. At the front of the lower gun deck is a manger where animals are sometimes kept. Anchor cables enter the ship at this deck, through holes at the bow, and can be laid in manger for temporary storage or drying. Sturdy wooden structures called bitts provide tie-off points for anchor cables to prevent movement when anchors are deployed.
Lower gun deck on HMS VictoryFurther back, there are bilge or chain pumps. These have long handles, allowing a large number of sailors to operate them in unison. These pumps are used to remove water from the hold well. The cranks drive a chain with a series of leather discs attached to it. These discs lift water up to removable wooden tubes on the deck floor which drive water up to the drains on the ship’s side.
Before and after the pump area are large rotating capstains for hauling in the anchor cables. In the same area is also an elm tree pump, which is essentially a well used to draw sea water from ship’s bottom for either cleaning or fighting fires.
Orlop Deck (Prvo potpalublje)
Orlop Deck is located above the hold and thus straddles the waterline. As a result, neither it nor the hold have any direct ventilation. Rather, air is introduced through a network of floor gratings in the decks which are used for ventillation as well as transferring cannons through the decks.
Bread Room (Spremište dvopeka)
Bread room with flour and biscuit storage is located at the rear end of the orlop deck, readily available for the meals.
Steward’s Room
Daily rations are dispensed from the Steward’s Room. Steward may sleep there to prevent theft, though he also has a cabin nearby.
Purser’s Cabin
Purser’s cabin is also close to steward’s room, as is the purser’s store. Purser (clerk) handles accounts and money.
Surgeon’s Cabin
Surgeon has a cabin for sleeping and performing non-battle related procedures.
Other
Marine’s clothing store, dispensary for medical supplies as well as Captain’s and Lieutenant’s stores are also here.
Large area in front of the above noted rooms is the Midshipmen’s Berth, for junior officers – usually teenagers.
In later ships such as Victory, ready racks with cannon cartridges could be present, suspended so that they hang into the bottom of the ship.
There are hatches throughout the orlop deck floor, called scuttles. These are located strategically for access to stores in the bottom of the ship.
The cockpit area in the middle of the ship is used to treat casualties during the battle.
Towards the front of the ship, sail rooms provide storage for sails when not in use or when being held for repairs.
Boatswain’s cabin and stores are towards the front, as is carpenter’s cabin and the workshop for ship maintenance and repair.
Narrow passageway along the each side of the orlop deck, called the carpenter’s walk, allows unobstructed access to hull along the ship’s waterline. Carpenter uses it to check for hull integrity and carry out repairs during the battle, which is critical as this is the area that is most vulnerable to damage.
Gunner’s store at the front of the orlop deck. It holds muskets, pistols and supplies for onboard cannons.
Bottom of the ship
Gunpowder store (Spremište baruta)
Gunpowder store on HMS VictoryMain magazine is usually located at the front bottom of the hull (ship’s hold). It stores gunpowder, and is lined with copper to keep the powder dry, protected from sparks as well as rats. In the nearby filling room, sailors prepare gunpowder cartridges for the ship’s cannons.
Gunpowder store is located in the rear area of ship’s bottom. It is illuminated with a lantern which is carefully protected in a cage. Fire in the store (or the magazine) is by far the worst threat to the ship as gunpowder explosion would easily destroy the entire ship.
Hold (skladišta)
Hold is the main storage area. Provisions (food, water, wine etc) are located in the bottom of the hull, below the lowest deck. One of men taking care of provisions is cooper, who makes sure barrels are sound. Provisions consisted of hardtack, dried fruit, dried vegetables, flour, cheese, salted meat, seasonings, water, wine… as sailing could last 3 to 6 months, significant quantities were required. A cook and a baker took care of feeding the crew. Biggest threat to provisions are rats, and so rat hunts are occasionally organized, with rewards to sailor who kills most rats.
HMS Victory, ship’s hold with ballast and barrelsA bed of rocks provides draining and stability for stored items, as well as improving ship’s own stability. Wooden ventilation ducts are located fore and aft for improving air quality, at least in some ships of the line. HMS Victory had in its holds 10 tons of flour at the far rear of the hold, then forward of it was the spirit room with 50 tons of beer. Main area carried 300 tons of water, 50 tons of coal or wood fuel, 20 tons of timber for repair or other needs, 30 tons of salted meat, 45 tons of biscuits (hardtack), 15 tons of peas and 2 tons of butter, as well as many other supplies. Shot locker holds 120 tons of cannon balls and other projectiles.
Hold well collects water in the lowest part of the ship (bilge) to be pumped out.
Cable Tiers (Okno sa sidrenim užetima)
This could be located either on the bottom of the ship (the hold) or on the orlop deck (as in HMS Victory). Cable tiers hold the coils of anchor cable or rope, with openings to provide proper drying and ventillation.
Crew
Crew quarters were far too small for the number of people on the ship – over 800 men on the first-rate such as HMS Victory. For comparison, Portsmouth – home of HMS Victory – had population of 32 000 in 1801. Sleeping nets – hammocks – were hung wherever there was space in the ship, closely set one next to another. Every hammock is meant for two: while one sailor is on duty, the other sailor is sleeping. Cannons are secured to ship’s sides to make the room for sleeping sailors. During action, rolled hammocks are stacked in side-netting to make a protective barrier (breastwork, rampart). Hammocks are regularly transported above the decks to be aired out.
Sailors hammocks on HMS VictoryEach ship of the line has a detachment of naval infantry (marines) numbering 125 men. Marines have three tasks: to prevent rebellion, defend the ship, and fight as sharpshooters in a battle (Nelson famously was killed by a French sharpshooter).
Officers and notables always climbed onto the ship on the the starboard side (starboard side is to the right for the person looking in the direction the ship is sailing, that is, standing on the stern and looking towards the bow). Starboard side is the noble side of the ship, and is where commander’s walkway or promenade is located. Prisoners, criminals and other undesireables always climb from the port side.
During the longer voyages, ship might load living animals onboard – cattle and sheep – to provide fresh provisions. Most often however, meat and fish are salted. Normal food onboard the ship are the biscuit, flour, dried fruits, cheese, salted meat and various spices.
Officers and Crewmen
Crew has to be a very strong and stable community. For this reason, crew of a British Royal Navy warship was formed of people from the same region, which helps secure connections and loyalty among the crew. Merchant navy, that does not need to ensure loyalty, often uses random recruitment which mixes various ethnicities.
Main ranks in the French Navy – and ranks were similar in all European navies – were Admiral, Viceadmiral of Squadron, Frigate Captain, and so on.
ranks and rates of USS ConstitutionOfficer candidate had to be at least fourteen years old, and in most navies (excepting the American, British and Dutch navies) also had to be of noble birth. Also desireable is sailing experience of a year or two. In the 16th year of age, the youth will, having passed the traineeship exam, embark aboard a ship as the cadet of the 3rd class in order to learn maneuvering, navigation and gunnery. He then returns to shore establishment where as a cadet of the 2nd class he receives expansive scientific and technical education. After a new exam, he embarks again as a cadet of the 1st class. After final exam, he gains the rank of ship’s Second Lieutenant following 10 to 12 years of learning and sailing.
Higher ranks are reached very slowly, based on both age and achievments. Captain of a ship is rarely younger than 44 or 45 years of age. Officers that are not of noble descent usually only reach the rank of captain after 50 years of age. Only exceptionally may an officer skip a rank due to exceptional feat or merit, but such examples are rare.
Captain is responsible for his ship. Loss of a ship always sees the captain – if he survived – court-martialed. In case of shipwreck captain always leaves the ship last.
Pilot, under Captain’s control, is responsible for ship’s route. To become pilot’s assistant it is necessary to have one year of experience on the sea as well as passed hydrographical exam. After this, the assistant will have to serve under active pilot for another 34 months before himself becoming a pilot.
Helmsman is responsible for the most important part of the ship. Rudder control is absolutely necessary to maintain ship’s balance, as forces of the sea and wind constantly affect the ship, moving its center of gravity and making it difficult to sail in desired direction. Thus, direction of sailing must be constantly adjusted. A good helmsman is able to predict in advance how much to turn the wheel to prevent the ship from moving away from desired direction. It is thus clear that good helmsmen are exceedingly rare. In front of helmsman is housing of ship’s compass. Helmsman keeps watch of them to be able to follow the course set by the ship’s pilot. In calm weather, ship’s wheel can be almost left alone. By contrast, when sea is choppy and when ship is sailing close to the wind, it is often necessary to have four men handle the wheel. In difficult conditions, helmsman is basically master of the ship. Good helmsman is also crucial when chasing down or running away from enemy ships.
Arms Captain commands the naval infantry unit on the ship. He is also responsible for maintaining order on the ship and thus frequently patrols the vessel. His duty is also to make sure that there is no fire outside the only three places where it is allowed on the ship: namely, the kitchen, captain’s quarters and the main compass housing. In the kitchen there is a permanently-burning wick guarded by the fire guard.
Ship’s priest is also educated in the special naval seminary. His chapel is located on the main deck, with the large bell declaring the start of the morning and the evening mass. When weather allows, Sunday mass is served on the stern.
Ship’s surgeon has education much more limited than that of a doctor (doctor of medicine). He is something of a chief orderly or a corpsman. Surgeon’s duty is to take care of the wounded and take care of the crew’s health. Surgeon’s work place is in the orlop deck.
Ship’s clerk is a notary and an accountant both. He writes out all the official documents (such as last wills) and leads books of goods and provisions. He too is an officer in the rank of Major, and has personal secretary as an assistant.
Cooper makes sure barrels are sound.
Master carpenter and his assistants are responsible for maintaining good state of the ship, and especially the most important parts: the rudder and the winches. To do this, they have access to all normal carpentry tools: saws, bill hooks, planers and so on. Carpenter also repairs any leaks in the hull, using wooden wedge and sailcloth. If the ship has to be repaired far away from the port, there is only one solution: disembark all the cargo, weaponry and anything not part of ship’s structure, remove the rigging and masts down to the basic masts, and then use ropes and pulleys to pull the ship to lay down on side on the sandy beach, so carpenters could work on dry to repair the hull. Once one side was done, ship had to be turned around for the other side to be repaired as well.
Carpenter’s toolboxBoatswain or a bosun is the boss of the deck, in direct charge of the activities of all crew on the deck. The job later developed into that of a petty officer, the seniormost non-commissioned rating of the deck and also responsible for the ship’s hull. In that role he would be responsible for directing the carpenter and sailmaker in their repairs to the ship. The original term was boat’s swain, which got shortened over time to boatswain and then to bo’s’n, bos’n or bosun, in order to be easily said and understood during the storm. In modern terms, boatswain is senior petty officer of the deck. Large ships have two bosuns, one for each side of the ship. To be heard, they used speaking trumpet as well as a whistle – also known as boatswain whistle or bosun’s pipe.
Punishments are frequent, and often corporal. These can range from withdrawing the pay to closing the person into ship’s bilge, to whipping. Whipping is frequent in the English Royal Navy, and frequently results in death.
Becoming a sailor was not always voluntary. Youths were often kidnapped by press gangs roving ports and the surrounding countryside and villages. Taken from their country and family for many months, new sailors would often be completely unaware how it happened in the first place.
Armament
Main artillery
Some of the largest naval cannons in 18th century are 3,085 meters long, weighting 3 640 kilograms with the carriage weighting another 900 kg. This means that safeties have to handle mass of 4,5 tons at each shot. Rate of fire or cadence is about one shot every eight minutes. Cannon is served by crew of 15 men.
Total of 30 guns of 32-pounder class as present on HMS Victory‘s lowest gun deck will have weighted nearly 100 tons (98,4 Imperial tons or 99,9 metric tons), with each gun weighting in at 3 280 kg or 65 cwt, 2 qtr, 0 lbs. Guns fired a shot weighting 14,4 kg / 32 lbs, with gunpowder charge of 4,8 kg / 10,66 lbs. Maximum range of gun (at 6° elevation) was 2,4 km / 1,5 miles, with range at 0 degrees being 366 meters / 400 yards. Each 32 pounder gun had a crew of six. Guns were maneuvered through the system of ropes and pulleys at each side and to the rear.
32-pounder guns on HMS VictoryPreparing cannon to fire is a complex operation in which each man has to carry out his role without fail. All of this is done in the heat of combat, in noise, smoke and cries of the wounded. While most of the smoke from cannon firing is left outside the ship, even small quantities that seep into the ship can over time render the inside air nearly opaque. Yet gunners, despite harsh conditions, have to carry out their duties quickly and cooly in order to maintain cadence. Survival of the ship depends on it.
Cannons have maximum range of some 2 500 to 3 000 meters. But at that distance, cannonballs have essentially no effect or penetrative power. Effective range begins at some 600 meters, distance at which cannonball can penetrate some 90 centimeters of oak. At 100 meters, cannonball penetrates 130 cm of oak. As a result, battles are fought at distances of 100 to 500 meters, and often even hull-to-hull, at boarding distance.
Shots can be direct or with deflection. The goal was usually either to disable the opponent or kill the crew. To do this, several types of shot were used. Cannonballs of cast or forged iron were used to shoot at the hull, while chain shot – two cannonballs connected by a chain or a bar – was used to destroy the rigging. Grapeshot, many small balls in canvas wrapping, was used to take out the crew. Gun elevation was changed by gun crew using levers, and main gunner would then set the desired elevation by inserting the aiming wedge.
Breech-loading swiwel guns were used as early as 14th century, but heavy artillery remained muzzle-loaded all the way until 19th century. Because of this, cannon once fired had to be retracted entirely into the hull. Tools with long handles are mounted above the gun. Even at the rearmost position, sailors have to lean outside the hull to access the gun. When reloading the gun, barrel is first cleaned with a worm, a spiral of thick wire at the end of long handle which catches any residue. Then the wet sponge is used to extinguish any remaining embers.
Loader would then insert the cartridge (that is, the gunpowder charge) and then the cannonball. Right-hand gunner would then use the rammer to ram all of this to the bottom of the gun. Another of the gun crew would ignite the charge from the left. Before this however, gunner’s pick or priming wire was used to pierce the cartridge, and then the charge would be ignited using the primer. Sometimes the “red” cannonballs were used – that is, the balls that were heated red-hot on the flames. Thus was rarely used due to a significant danger of fire onboard the ship.
Wooden poles were used to lift the barrel. This allowed adjustment of a wooden wedge at the back which controlled the gun’s pitch or elevation.
When cannon is fired, it generates significant recoil. In order to prevent the gun from sliding back out of control, a thick rope – called recoil rope – was used to control the recoil. Rope passed behind the gun barrel and was connected to ship’s hull.
Cannons must be well-secured during a storm, as loose cannons can injure and kill people as well as heavily damage the ship.
A first rate ship of the line such as HMS Victory will have had significant artillery. On HMS Victory herself there were 30 32-pounder guns on the lowest gun deck, 28 24-pounder guns on the middle gun deck and 30 12-pounder guns on the upper gun deck. There were additionally 12 12-pounder guns on the quarterdeck and two 12-pounder guns in the forecastle, bringing the total up to 44 12-pounder guns. She will have had a total of 102 guns, all of which were 12-pounders or larger. For comparison, at Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon had 252 guns with the British having 156. Majority of British guns will have been six-pounders, with maybe 60 being 9-pounders. A ship of the line had, literally, firepower of an army. Using weight of the shot by a salvo, a broadside (half the artillery) by HMS Victory will have put out 1 080 pounds of shot, while salvo by British artillery at Waterloo will have put out some 1 100 pounds of a shot. Comparing battle to battle, at Battle of Trafalgar, two fleets had a total of 47 000 men and 4 780 cannons. Largest land battle – that of Leipzig – involved a total of 560 000 men and 2 200 cannons – less than half the artillery at Trafalgar.
Other armament
Other armament was also used in naval battles. Muskets and swivel guns were used for anti-personnel work. Carronade was a short heavy gun used by the Royal Navy ships of the line from late 18th century until 1820s. While devastating at short range it was outranged by long guns, and thus warships tended to carry limited numbers of carronades. Properly used however they could clear enemy ship deck in short order.
Mortars were used to fire explosive shells. These were not later contact-explosion shells, but rather shells with a wick fuse.
Flags
There are many types of flags used on sailing warships. Most notable is the naval ensign, a large maritime flag used for national identification of the ship. Command flag is used to denote command rank of the ship: it can be admiral’s flag, flag of squadron commander, or captain’s flag. This flag gave birth to term “flagship”, i.e. the ship flying admiral’s flag.
Signal flags are used to signal commands or information. Flags can be seen over a dozen miles in clear weather, but during the battle gun smoke significantly reduces visibility. To ensure visibility over distance, signal flags can be very large. Square signal flag is 6×4 m, conus 10×3 m and pennant 14×2,5 m.
Development of signal flag design through 18th centuryNaval pennant is a triangle-shaped flag which denotes state of the ship. Three French squadrons from the end of the 18th century were differentiated by color of the pennants each flew: blue-white, white (admiral’s squadron) and blue.
Ship will carry ensigns of foreign countries to deceive the enemy. Combat however is initiated only under one’s own flag, and its raising is signalled by one or more cannon shots. These shots are essentially word of honour that the ensign is truly that of the country to which ship belongs.
On special occasions, when receiving important guest or when honoring the country ship is visiting, tradition required a gun salute followed by closing of gunports and displaying every single piece of cloth ship had. Flags, pennants and sails were all put on display.
Maneuvering the Ship
In better equipped ports, ship is tied to a deadweight (“corpo morto”), heavy stone or concrete block at the bottom of the sea. This allows the ship to quickly leave. But when ship had anchored itself, the process is much more complex. Ship is usually anchored by two anchors dropped from the bow. But during the storm it may happen that anchors will get dislodged and start dragging along the bottom, pulling the ship along with them. For this reason, pilot has to determine ship’s exact position by using the compass as soon as the wind starts blowing. During the night it is also necessary to regularly measure depth of water below the keel to assure that the anchor is keeping the ship in place. If the depth had changed, pilot orders the anchor ropes to be tightened to try and make anchors grab the sea floor again. Should this fail, additional anchors will be lowered, which can be dangerous as the weight of anchors can cause the ship to start sinking bow-first (large anchor may weight 3 – 5 tons, and a ship of the line may carry four anchors at the bow). While this is a rare occurence, should it happen the only solution is to cut the ropes and ground the ship.
To leave the anchorage it is necessary to wait for favorable time, weather and wind. Anchors will be lifted and ship maneuvered with sails only – low speed means that the rudder is useless. As the ship is usually anchored facing the wind, first sail to be raised is jib, which allows the ship to gain angle relative to the wind. As soon as the ship is moving and responding to rudder, other sails are also raised as the wind demands and the ship turned in desired direction.
Anchor is raised by a large anchor winch, the capstan, which is vertically positioned through the lower and middle decks. Main anchor weights some 3,5 tons, and is carried by a rope half a meter thick, 200 spans (194 meters) long and weighting 6 tons. Rope thus has to be capable of handling more than 10 tons of weight. Turning the capstan requires some 140 men, 70 on each of the two decks. As the anchor rope is too thick to be itself wound, a rope with knots and connected ends, turning in circle, is used. This “messenger rope” winds around the capstain and passes around the pillars at the front of the ship. In order to use a capstain, cannons have to be moved and ladders removed to make room for large removable wooden bars. Each bar may have six or more sailors to a bar. As the capstain turns and the messanger rope travels, sections of rope called “nippers” are used to tie the anchor cable to the messanger line, and both move together. Cables move through decks to the cable storage in the orlop deck.
Ship of the line may carry seven anchors, of which four are located at the bow in two pairs. Bowers anchors are the main set, with a backup pair of anchors slung nearby. These heavy anchors may weight some 4 – 5 tons apiece. Anchors are lowered by cranes located on either side of the bow in the beams called catheads. Once in position, anchor cables, eight inches in diameter, handle the rest.
Rudder is one of the most important parts of the ship. It thus has to be frequently controlled. In addition to pintle, rudder is further secured by two chains to prevent sea from carrying it off. Rudder is checked from the rear magazine porthole.
Rudder itself is controlled by a system of ropes and pulleys which connect the ship’s wheel to the tiller.
Should a ship run aground, first the hull integrity must be assured. If it is not leaking, the only choice is to lighten the ship as much as possible, lay it down on the side to reduce the draught, and wait for tide to pull it off using anchors thrown towards the open sea.
Determining the Position
First two thirds of the 18th century, until invention of the mechanical chronometer, time was measured by hourglasses. Ship’s time was set by Sun, that is, by the real noon of the place where ship was located. But this time changes every day as the ship sails westwards or eastwards. Thus passage of Sun is observed directly through meridian, and by thus set noon the hourglass clocks are started.
There are three main types of hourglasses. One of them is used only in battle and lasts for four hours. Most typically used is the half-hour hourglass, which has to be turned every half an hour starting with the noon. Lastly, there is the Loch hourglass lasting thirty seconds. Based on the speed as measured with the Loch hourglass and the measured time overall, the distance covered is calculated. Yet such measurements are not yet precise enough for accurate navigation. Hourglasses are inaccurate, and there is also an issue of guards “eating sand”, that is, turning the clock too soon to reduce their watch time. This issue was only solved in 1763., when John Harrison – a clockworker from London – created first true mechanical chronometers.
John Harrison’s marine chronometerDirection of sailing is determined by compass. Each ship has two compasses placed in housing in front of the ship’s wheel so that pilot can always see them. Betwen the compasses is lantern which illuminates them at night. More accurate positioning is done by observing Sun and the stars. In order to measure height of a star from the horison as accurately as possible, observation has to be made immediately before sunrise or after sunset, when it is possible to see both the stars and the line of horizon at the same time.
Height of stars above the horison is measured using octant. Perfection of the octant is achievment of Englishman John Hadley. Near the end of the 18th century, octant developed into sextant which is in use even today. These tools were a significant advancement compared to astrolab, Jakov’s staff or quadrant, all of which were in use until the mid-18th century.
OctantSounding line or lead line is used to find out depth of water below the keel. It is the oldest navigational tool in the repertoire, having been used since antiquity. It consists of a lead weight of some 10 to 15 kilograms tied to an end of a rope. Rope has measurement markers spaced at one fathom (English fathom is 6 feet or 2 yards, which is 1.8228 meters).
18th century speedometer is a chip log – a rope with wooden float tied to it, rolled onto a spool. Every 15 meters there was a knot tied into the rope. Float was thrown into the sea from the stern, and the rope was left to freely unwind. Number of knots that passed in a set time gave the speed of the ship.
In Battle
Maneuvering of a sailing ship is heavily restricted by the wind and the sea, which is a fact that every admiral has to respect before even considering the battle. For example, if wind is blowing towards the enemy (that is, the enemy is downwind), one’s own ships will have easier time maneuvering and thus will be more easily able to accept or reject battle. Ship’s angle induced by the wind also means that the side turned towards the enemy has deeper draft, which makes it better protected. But if the sea is choppy, such deeper draft can disable the lowest – and thus the heaviest – guns. If the wind is blowing from direction of the enemy, ship’s angle will protect the deck from shot, cannons will be more easily retracted to be reloaded, and smoke after shot clears more quickly.
Thus, correct timing and assessment of the conditions is what makes a captain or admiral a great commander. Naval warfare is turned into art, into science, and is codified and studied in naval academies. But knowledge is not enough – to be useful, it must be accompanied by instinct, by intuition.
During battle, each member of the crew has to fulfill his duty. Heroics – individual or group – will be found in every battle. But in the background is always coolheadedness and camaderie of the crew, in such moments more necessary than ever. All maneuvers and tasks, no matter how complex, must be carried out perfectly.
Before the battle, sleeping nets were removed and placed along the gunwale to form rampart as additional protection against musket balls and shrapnel.
While ship’s hull was reasonably proof against cannon balls from distance, shots from close range could cause massive damage. Damage done by the cannonball itself was multiplied by splinters from hull’s planks, which turned even solid shot into factually a grapeshot and caused massive casualties on crowded decks in battle.
Rear of the ship – lightly built and with many windows due to captain’s and other quarters there – was especially vulnerable. Raking fire from astern was thus especially dangerous as shots could pierce the hull and the carry on along the length from the ship even when fired from significant distance. By contrast, heavily built and sloped bow offered a significant chance of deflecting shots, especially at distance. Stern rake also carried a significant possibility of disabling ship’s rudder.
This fact allowed even frigates to, on occasion, take on and defeat ship of the line. Under normal circumstances, in a side-on engagement, frigate stood little chance. Its hull was more lightly built, and artillery much lighter – heaviest guns on frigate tended to be 12-pounders, or 18-pounders for late-18th century designs, while a ship of the line would carry 32-pounders as its heaviest guns, or, exceptionally, even 42-pounders. This combined with much thicker hull meant that frigate’s cannonballs would be bouncing off ship of the line’s hull even at distances where latter’s shots went straight through a frigate’s hull.
Up until the Napoleonic wars, however, frigates generally did not engage ships of the line – or engage in combat during fleet actions. Purpose of frigates was that of raiders, counter-raiders, and couriers. They thus fought each other, and usually only when there were no ships of the line around. In large fleet engagements, frigates would not engage ships of the line – and it was likewise considered a bad etiquette for ship of the line to engage a frigate. Frigates instead were stationed behind the line of battle where they relayed messages from flagship to rest of the battle line that may not have been able to see flagship’s signals themselves.
Frigates also served as tugs for disabled or sinking ships – which is to say, ships that were no longer a threat. More importantly, they would also rescue sailors from sinking vessels – irrespective of the side or nationality, as sailors were considered non-combatants after their vessel had been rendered combat-ineffective. It was thus beneficial for both sides to not engage enemy ships that might actually come to their rescue in need. During the wars of the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars however, this rule became to be honored more in breach than in observance, as increasing size and armament of frigates had made them valuable combatants in the line of battle.
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