War FantasyRoman Limes
Limes means road – originally, it really was a road connecting border fortifications with each other. Over time, it began denoting a geographically shaped or fortified border. It is incorrect to use limes as a term for all borders of the Roman Empire, though the world will sometimes be used in such a manner as well. System of border fortifications fulfilled its functions generally from 1st until 4th century AD, though in places it continued to function until 5th century AD.
In most places, not much has survived of Roman border fortifications. Hadrian’s Wall is by far the best known of them, and even it does not approach the preservation of the Great Wall of China. Limes in Germany is for the most part little more than some stretches of slightly raised ground. But when it was in function, stone wall was three meters tall and stretched for hundreds of kilometers, guarded strictly by watchtowers. Wall itself was plastered and whitewashed. Roman engineering was incredibly precise: a 50 kilometre long segment of the wall curves only 92 centimeters away from straight line (curvature of 0,00184%).
Roman borders were guarded by a network of walls, rivers, fortresses and watchtowers. Soldiers had to guard border stretching from Irish Sea to the Red Sea, from Caucasus to the Red Sea, and from the Red Sea to the African Atlantic coast. Best known part of this border is Hadrian’s Wall in England, declared by UNESCO in 1987 to be a part of world heritage. In 2005 UNESCO founded a mixed conservatory encompassing 550 kilometers of the German border. But question remains: why were the walls built?
From around 500 BC until 100 AD, Rome is in more-or-less constant expansion. During this time, Rome transformed from a small Itallic city-state into the greatest empire Europe had ever known. Emperor Trajan was a dedicated heir to this tradition of aggression. Between 101 and 117 AD he led a series of wars of conquest, in modern-day Romania, Armenia, Iraq and Iran. When he died in 117 AD, Roman territory had stretched from Persian Bay to Scotland. Trajan left the Empire to his adopted son, 41-year-old Iberian senator, self-declared poet and amateur architect Publius Elius Hadrian. Hadrian decided to abandon the newly conquered provices to reduce the losses.
But new Emperor’s policy was not popular. It cut into the very basis of Roman identity. Hadrian had simply recognized that Roman military expansion was no longer profitable. Most important provinces, like Gaul and Hadrian’s own Spain, were full of cities and farms. Conquest of Germanic wilderness was simply not worth the effort.
Hadrian was helped by the fact that army respected him. A former soldier, he was the first of Roman emperors to wear a beard. More than half of his 21-year rule he spent visiting troops on three continents. Wide swathes of territory were emptied, while the army dug in along the new, shorter frontiers. Wherever Hadrian went, walls and fortifications were built. Message was clear: no more expansion. By Hadrian’s death in 138 AD, a network of fortifications and roads originally meant to facilitate further expansion had been transformed into a fortified border thousands of kilometers long.
Best known monument to Hadrian’s fortification work is probably Hadrian’s wall in Britain. Today the Hadrian’s Wall is one of best preserved and documented parts of the old Roman border. It stretches some 118 kilometers, and it follows the terrain. Route of the wall had been determined by Emperor himself during his visit to Britain. Original wall had been 4,5 meters tall and three meters thick, with a three metre deep ditch in front of the wall. During several decades of excavations, holes filled with stakes had been discovered. Wall was followed by a road which helped soldiers respond to threats. Watchtowers (burgs) were built along the wall at 500 meter intervals. Other roman border walls were similar in nature, though often constructed of wood and/or earth rather than stone. Where borders were defined by rivers, no wall was necessary, though a line of watchtowers continued unchanged. Stanegate Line, precursor to Hadrian’s Wall, likewise consisted of a wooden pallisade with a ditch and wooden watchtowers.
Few kilometers behind the border were forts, placed half a day of march from each other. Each fortress could house 500 (cohors quingenaria) or 1 000 men (cohors milliaria). These fortresses – castella – were also manned by border troops (auxillia). Last, deepest line of defense were legionary castra, camps of the legions with each camp holding an entire 5 000 strong legion.
Excavations at Vindolanda in 1973 had helped reconstruct life of Roman border troops from artifacts preserved in wet, deoxygenated ground. Dig site had turned up everything from 1900 old planks to clothes, leather footwear and dog crap. Most important find however were wooden planks containing soldiers’ letters. These contained details of everyday life: work tasks, schedules, inventories, supply requests and personal letters. Last category includes an invitation for birthday party sent from an officer’s wife to another officer’s wife.
Letters show that keeping an eye on the “rotten little Brits” was not easy, but guarding the fort wasn’t too difficult either. Some soldiers had lived with families, as finds of children’s shoes attest. Wall’s guards ate well: bacon, ham, wild game, chicken, oysters, apples, eggs, honey, Celtic beer and wine. Soldiers also received packages from home: one soldier had received socks, two pairs of sandals and two pieces of underwear.
While the wall shows the enemy could be deadly, letters hardly indicate a state of siege. Massive building project to the north is barely mentioned. This however raises a question: what, exactly, was the purpose of the walls?
For the longest time, assumption was that the walls had been built solely for purpose of defending against the barbarian incursions: akin to the trenches of the First World War. But that assumption is not necessarily correct. For one, fortified walls were an exception, not the rule, along the Roman border. Borders on the Rhine and Danube were defended by a combination of military fortresses and strong riverrine navy. In the northern Africa, Syria and Arabia, desert itself created the border. And border with the Persian Empire, Rome’s most dangerous enemy, was defended by a series of fortresses – most significant of these being Dura Europos, the Gates of Europe.
Border guards were akin to modern border police. They will have been useless against an invading army, but very useful for intercepting small groups of raiders, smugglers or collecting taxes. Or, indeed, stopping immigration. Regardless of what modern people want to believe, immigration is inherently disruptive to society. As a result, any sane society will seek to control it, if not stop it alltogether. But purpose of limes was not only defensive – it was offensive as well. The border forts provided a staging area, a jump-off line from which Roman influence spread deep into the barbaricum through trade and occasional incursions.
For centuries, emperors had used a combination of threats and bribes to secure peace. Rome was constantly negotiating with the tribes and kingdoms beyond its borders, always aiming to create a buffer zone of neutral or preferably dependant kings and chieftains to isolate Rome’s own borders. Allied tribes were allowed to cross border at wish while other tribes could only trade within the Empire under watch of armed sentries.
Loyal allies were rewarded also with gifts, weapons and military assistance and training. Friendly barbarians also occasionally served in the Roman Army. After 25 years of service they would retire as Roman citizens, free to settle anywhere within the Empire. Vindolanda itself was a home to units raised from northern Spain, France, Belgium and Netherlands.
Vindolanda from air – screw the geography, we have a rulerTrade too was a tool of foreign policy. Roman-German committee in Frankfurt, part of the German Archaeological Institute, has a database that includes over 10 000 Roman artefacts found outside the borders, found as far away as Norway and Russia.
But where carrot failed, Rome was all to ready to use the stick. Roman legions regularly went to campaign beyond the borders of the Empire. Rome spent seven years to avenge the defeat in Teutoburg Forest. Hadrian himself suppressed Jewish uprising in 132 AD, with one Roman historian stating that half a million Jews had been killed in fighting, with many more dying of hunger, disease or fire. Survivors were thrown into chains and resettled throughout the Empire – thus planting seeds of trouble for centuries to come. For Romans, genocide was merely a tool in preserving peace, a tool that was applied time and again so the peace could be kept. Pax Romana was built on bones and consecrated in blood.
Just as the Hadrian’s wall commemorates the height of the Roman limes, so Dura Europos illustrates the moment when the walls began to crumble. Dura Europos was a fortified city on the border between Rome and Persia, Rome’s greatest rival throughout antiquity. Remains of the city, discovered in 1920., are located some 40 kilometers from Syrian border with Iraq. Ten years of excavations uncovered a city frozen in time, many buildings nearly perfectly preserved except for lack of the roof.
Dura Europos had been founded by Greeks in 300 BC, and conquered by Rome some 500 years later. Its tall, thick walls and position high above Euphrates made the city an ideal border guard. Northern part of the city was walled off and transformed into the Roman “safe zone” with barracks, headquarters, large communal bath for soldiers, amphitheatre and palace for governmental officials. At least seven outposts (advance guards) were under command of Dura Europos. One of them had a crew of only three soldiers, while another was some 150 kilometers downriver from Dura.
Peace did not last. Persia soon established itself as the greatest threat along the eastern border some half a century following Roman conquest of Dura. War began in 230 AD and spread across Mesopotamia. It also revealed flaws in the Roman strategy of border defense, which was useless agains numerous, strong opponent.
The final fall of Dura Europos happened in 256 AD. Romans were definitely aware of the impending attack: they had had time enough to reinforce the massive western wall, burying portion of the city to make an earthern rampart. Persian army had made camp at the city graveyard, few hundred meters away from Dura’s main gates. While catapults (ballistae in modern terminology) bombarded Romans with stone projectiles, Persians built a siege tower and began digging mines underneath the city walls, hoping to collapse them. Dura’s defenders retaliated with their own mines.
During this underground fighting, 19 Roman soldiers broke into Persian tunnel. There they were quickly killed by poisonous gas released by Persians. This is one of the oldest archeological proofs of biological warfare.
While Persians failed to breach the walls, they still succeeded in taking the city. City was destroyed and left for the desert to reclaim, surviving defenders slaughtered or enslaved. Persian armies entered deeply into the territory of eastern Roman provinces, sacking dozen cities and overcoming three Roman emperors – last being unfortunate Valerian in 260 AD. Persian king Shapur allegedly used Valerian as a footstool before having him flayed and his skin nailed to the wall.
Valerian and ShapurThis crisis symbolized the end of the old Roman security system. For 150 years, limes had allowed Romans to ignore the world outside. At the same time, this world was quickly closing the gap, nullifying Roman military and administrative advantages. This was largely the fault of Romans themselves. By allowing the barbarians to serve in their army, Romans enabled said barbarians to take home lessons learned there and field increasingly well-organized and well-equipped armies which mimicked Roman weaponry, tactics, siege techniques and even high-level strategy. By paying off barbarians and trading with them, Rome helped them to gradually coagulate into increasingly sophisticated alliances that could engage Rome on nearly equal terms.
And so, as Rome’s attention was elsewhere, barbarian tribes grew, becoming increasingly more aggressive and organized. As soon as crisis with Persia pulled Roman legions from Rhine and Danube, barbarian federations would launch mass incursions that would devastate the territory of the Empire. Hadrian’s legacy was doomed to failure: concentration of legions on the border meant that once barbarians were inside, entire territory was left open. Some of the first major incursions reached very deep into the Roman territory. In 259 and 260, Alemanni reached as far as Italy itself, and spent several months raiding the entire Italian peninsula, facing virtually no opposition. Barbarians were only defeated once they reached limes again upon their return, where they were destroyed in a two-day battle on 24th and 25th April 260. Empire was no longer safe; cities contracted, abandoning large swathes of territory and fortifying themselves in now much reduced area – often using rubble of destroyed buildings to build new walls. Over the next few centuries, the Empire slowly dissolved.
Late Roman Limes
This was not the end of limes, however. While barbarian incursions forced the Empire to rethink its defensive strategy, forming new field armies to defend the depth of the territory, border fortifications still remained in use. In fact, late Roman emperors still carried out major reconstruction work on border fortifications. Germanic limes was reconstructed or restored sometime around 260/270 AD, and later on both Diocletian and Constantine also embarked on massive works of restoring the limes. In fact, it is likely (though not certain) that effort to restore and strenghten the limes lasted from 260 AD until well into early 4th century and reign of Constantine I. Late Roman fortifications differ from those of earlier periods in that they tend to be smaller (though this is not a hard rule), have more complex and generally better thought-out defensive arrangements, and tend to be located along the waterways instead of roads. Warehouses (horrea) were increasingly located in or near the military fortifications.
Durostorum – today’s Silistra. A good example of Late Roman fortification – no more playing cards for ya!Generally, older fortifications of limes continued in their original function. A number of fortifications were newly-built, and these fortifications were significantly different compared to older fortifications. They were equipped with bridges, river bank revetments, ports and horrea, which indicates that they served multiple functions besides garrisoning soldiers.
Late Roman limes could be roughly divided into African, Syrian, Danubian, Rhine, and the British limes.
Diocletian’s limes
While theories were posited (e.g. Luttwak) that Diocletian instituted a defense-in-depth, there is no archaeological evidence supporting this theory. There are no fallback sites, buffer zones and fortified bases in the hintherland. Cities did gain fortification, but that was most likely a purely local response to increased instability. Hinterland is in fact largely devoid of military sites. Limes also continued in its function of controlling riverrine transport.
Rather than representing a radical revolution, Diocletian’s defensive strategy focused on restoring and expanding the previously existing concepts and infrastructure. Earthen ramparts of old fortifications were replaced by massive stone walls, and fortifications became far more complex in form and function, continuing the trend discussed previously. Entire frontier of the Empire was refortified, and those areas that had no fortification required the immediate erection of defensive structures.
Diocletian assigned border defense to specialized units, the limitanei. These units were, or at least gradually developed into, essentially border defense militia – by the 6th and 7th centuries, limitanei had actually become farmer-soldiers, working on farms or other jobs in addition to their military duty. This border militia was supported by cavalry units stationed at key points behind the border. System was applied alla long the border, even areas that had neither border walls nor the natural fortifications – such as the East and the Egypt.
Late Roman limitanei soldier reenactment (limitanus?)Diocletian began reorganization of the Rhine limes immediately after his ascension in 285 AD, sending Maximian to Gaul to reestablish order and reoccupy the limes. Maximian established a Frankish buffer state on the far bank of the Rhine and constructed a line of forts in advance of the Rhine from Mayence to the sources of the Danube. Diocletian also personally supervised reoccupation of Rhaetian limes in 288 AD and ripa sarmaticae in 294 AD. In the same year Constantine extensively augmented the Rhine fortifications to provide increased security for Gaul so he could invade Britain in peace. This augmentation included construction of second line of fortifications from Basel to Constance. In 289 and 300 Diocletian supervised reconstruction of the Syrian limes from Antioch.
Where works on the Rhine were refortification along the natural boundary, fortification of Syria required ground-up development of the threefold in-depth defense system. This system, described above, was then adopted in other areas of the frontier as well. Syrian limes was one of the earliest constructed by Diocletian, with majority of it constructed from 287 to 293, and small northern section in 297 AD. This limes had no continuous wall (vallum) akin to that of Hadrian or Rhine limes: there were no natural features to reinforce the wall, and Persian army was too strong and well organized to be even slowed down by such an obstacle. Instead, a series of forts were constructed on locations that were already naturally fortified, such as hills, plateaus and other strategic points. Manned by limitanei, these were the first line of defense in the East.
African limes prior to Diocletian consisted of a series of castella (fortified guard posts) serving as desert watch stations, reinforced by fossatum (ditch and earthern ramparts). Diocletian fortified it so that it began to resemble the Syrian limes. The fossatum became a continuous rampart employed as the boundary of the Roman frontier as well as a part of the defensive system – earthern rampart perhaps four to ten meters high and topped by a wooden wall. But since rampart could never be completely garrisoned, main defense were the fortresses. Fossatum itself was really the last line of defense in a complex defensive system.
Danubian limes received the same treatment as the Rhine and Syrian limes. It too was reoccupied and refortified, as well as being strenghtened with secondary defensive positions of cavalry and legions. New castella were constructed on the right (southern) bank of Danube, largely in the same way as the African fossatum.
This massive expansion of frontier defenses however required massive expansion of the army as well. Number of legions was increased to 60, so that the overall army increased from 400 000 to some 550 000 – 600 000 men. Of these, at least 270 000 will have been legionaries, assuming that new legions had 1 500 – 3 500 men compared to some 5 500 of the old legions (40 * 5 500 = 220 000, 20 * 2 500 = 50 000, 220 000 + 50 000 = 270 000). If new legions also had 5 000 men, then legionary complement will have been 600 000 troops, which is an extremely unlikely increase. Indeed, some historians argue that new Diocletianic legions were even smaller, at around 1 000 men. This is possibly supported by much later Notitia Dignitatum which lists some 200 legions in total. Nevertheless, size of the army was doubled in the time between Septimius Severus and Diocletian, with most of the increase attributable to Diocletian himself. In order to facilitate this increase in troops, Diocletian had to completely revamp the Imperial and provincial administration.
Army was divided into border troops (limitanei), field army (comitatenses) and the Emperor’s own army (praesentalis). Limitanei garrisoned the border fortitifications, while comitatenses responded to more significant incursions. Praesental army existed mostly to protect the emperor from usurpation, but also to provide additional response force that was immediately at the emperor’s disposal.
Limitanei themselves were increasingly militia-like. According to Codex Iustinianus, by Justinian’s time these not only defended the forts and settlements of the frontier but also engaged in agricultural cultivation of land to encourage settlement of the frontier regions by civilians. Whether limitanei of Diocletian acted in this way is unclear.
Limitanei were supported by equites, cavalry organized in independent units called vexillationes, each unit numbering 500 men. These cavalry units provided main means of communication, and were also responsible for checking the barbarian raids from beyond the frontier.
The primary fighting force of any province were two legions assigned to the province, called ripenses. These legions too were located along the border, some distance beyond it within the Roman territory. By 325 AD there came to be an official distinction between the ripenses and comitatenses. Most provinces had no garrisons at all. But in border provinces, provincial governor usually commanded the limitanei of the province while military dux commanded the legions and the cavalry.
Individual walls
Hadrian’s wall
Hadrian’s wall is perhaps the best known portion of Roman limes. It was erected by Roman emperor Hadrian in years 121 – 129 AD. The fortifications ran from Bowness on Solvay Bay to Wallsend on the River Tyne for about 80 Roman miles, or 120 km. Wall was built primarily by the three legions stationed in Britain and assigned auxilliary troops. Once completed, the wall had garrison of 10 000 troops.
Antonine wall
Antoninus’ wall was built through the central, narrowest portion of Scotland (the Forth-Clyde narrowing). Construction lasted from 142 to 144 AD. Some 58 kilometers long, it was less than half the length of the Hadrian’s wall and thus, hopefully, easier to defend. But the wall was eventually abandoned in 164 AD, with Romans pulling back to Hadrian’s wall.
Trajan’s wall
Trajan’s wall is a collective name used for several series of earthen fortifications discovered in Moldova, Romania and Ukraine. These fortifications are unlikely to have been built by Emperor Trajan however.
There are three walls in Romania in total. Oldest and smallest vallum stretches 61 km from Cetatea Pătulului on the Danube to today’s city of Constanta on the Black Sea. It was made of earth and had no defensive structures other than moat in the southern part. Thus it is unlikely to have been Roman, as purpose was to protect from attacks from the south. The second vallum stretches for 54 kilometers from Danube to Palas, west of the city of Constanta. It is 3,5 meters tall on average with moats on both sides. Wall is further protected by 63 fortifications built on the rampart: 35 larger castra and 28 smaller castella, spaced on average 1 kilometers apart. Last vallum is an earthern rampart with a stone wall atop, and stretches for 59 kilometers, from Axiopolis (Cernavoda) to the Black Sea coast. It consists of 1,5 meters tall agger with 2 meters tall wall and a moat in the northern part. It is protected by 26 fortifications spaced between 1 to 4 kilometers.
In Moldova, two large fragments of limes had been preserved: Trajan’s Upper Wall and Trajan’s Lower Wall. The lower wall dates back to the 3rd century CE and was built by Antharyk, king of the Terwings. It stretches from the bansk of the rivers Gerasius (Prut) and Danube to the land of Taifali (Oltenia). The upper wall, in turn, was to be built in the 4th century CE at the request of the Goths, in order to protect the borders against the Huns. Its length is 120 kilometers from the Dniester River to the Prut River. In Ukraine, Trajan’s wall is located in Podolia and stretches from the present Kamianets-Podilskyi, through Novaya Ushitsa, to the city of Khmelnytsky.
Limes Germanicus
Limes Germanicus protected the Roman provinces of Germania Inferior, Germania Superior and Raetia, separating the Roman Empire from free Germania between 83 and 260 AD. This limes stretched from the mouth of the Rhine to the North Sea as far as Regensburg on the Danube. Two rivers provided natural obstacles, with only exception being the gap stretching from Mogontiacum (Mainz) on the Rhine to Castra Regina (Regensburg) on the Danube.
Limes consisted of three sections:
- The Lower Limes Germanicus between Katwijk (Netherlands) and the North Sea along the Lower Rhine;
- The Upper Limes Germanicus, from the Rhine in what is now Rheinbrohl, through the Taunus Mountains to the Main River, along its course to what is now Miltenberg, and from Osterbrucken in a straight line south (about 70 km);
- Limes Raetiae stretched east of Lorch on the Danube.
Total length of the limes was 568 kilometers, protected by at least 60 forts and 900 watchtowers. Weakest and thus best guarded section was between Mainz and Regensburg, a 300 kilometers wide corridor of land between Rhine and Danube which allowed barbarian incursions.
From death of Augustus onwards, Rome essentially accepted boundary in the form of Rhine and upper Danube. But upper Rhine and upper Danube were easy to cross, which is why Romans conquered the land between Rhine and Danube and built a wall there. This Upper Limes Raetian had to be abandoned during the barbarian invasions and defense shifted to Rhine, Iller and Danube rivers.
Limes Arabicus
Limes Arabicus was Roman frontier in the desert of Arabia. At its greatest extent, it stretched for 1 500 kilometers from northern Syria to southern Palestine and northern Arabia. It was a part of a greater system of Roman borders in the region, and had several forts and watchtowers. Its purpose was to protect Roman province of Arabia Petraea from the attacks of barbarian tribes from the Arabian desert.
Near limes, Trajan commissioned construction of a major road – the Via Nova Traiana, which stretched 430 kilometers from Bostra to Aila (now Aqaba) on the Red Sea. Road was finished during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, and just like all other Roman roads, its main purpose was to allow rapid movement of troops.
During the Severan dynasty (195 – 235 AD) Romans strenghtened the limes by building additional forts and roads. Around 300 AD emperor Diocletian divided the province of Arabia by incorporating the southern part of the province into the province of Palestine. Later in the 4th century the southern part of the region was formed into an independent province (Palaestina Tertia). Each province was governed by a civil governor (praeses) and a military governor (dux).
Emperor Diocletian strenghtened Roman rule in the region by constructing several forts (castellas), watchtowers and fortresses in the desert hills east of Via Nova. Limes was extended from Damascus to Wadi-al-Hasa, and had four castellas and one Roman camp. The border zone south of Wadi al-Hasa was called limes Palaestina and extended to Aila. There were ten castellas and one Roman camp in this area. Roman camps were placed every 100 km to create a line of safety.
Limes Alutanus
Limes Alutanus to the leftLimes Alutanus was a line of fortifications consisting of a vallum built north to south on the eastern side of the Aluta River, and seven castra. It was eastern border of the Roman province of Dacia. Construction was commissioned by Emperor Hadrian to prevent invasions from the east. The seven camps are: Pons Vetus (Câineni, Vâlcea); Praetorium (Racoviţa, Valcea); Arutela (point “Poiana Bivolari”, near the present city of Călimăneşti); Castra Traiana (Sânbotin, Valcea); Buridava (Stolniceni, Valcea); Pons Aluti (Ionestii Govorei); Rusidava (Drăgăşani).
Limes Transalutanus
Limes Transalutanus to the rightLimes Transalutanus is a system of fortified borders of the Roman Empire built on the western edge of Dacia – specifically, western edge of Teleorman County in today’s Romania. The border consisted of a road in front of the border, a fortress, a three-meter vallum (10-12 meters wide), rows of wooden palisades, stone defensive walls and a ditch. Limes was 235 kilometres long, as was the nearby Aluta River. It was located 5-30 kilometres west of the fortifications. Construction was carried out between 107 AD and 211 AD, but Romans eventually abandoned the province in 271 – 275 AD.
Limes Moesiae
Limes Moesiae was a fortification system consisting of three defensive lines between the Black Sea coast and the Danube. There were also two lines of fortifications in Wallachia: the “wall of Constantine” and the “limes Transalutanus”.
Limes were founded in the Danube Delta most likely during the reign of Trajan. Between the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, the frontier was expanded and abandoned. The Limes consisted of three sections: the first was in the south between what is now Constanta and the Danube (called “Trajan’s wall”); the second north of the Danube Delta (called “Lower Trajan’s Wall” in Moldavia or “Athnarica Wall”); and the third in central Moldova from the Prut River to the Dniester (called the “wall of the Greutungs”).
All these sections consisted of three meter high and two meters wide earthen embankments, similar to dikes found in Britain and Wales. Not far from the limes Moesiae were further two defensive structures responsible for the defence of Moesia and Dacia: the Wall of Constantine (also called Brazda lui Novac de Nord), which was built in Wallachia in 330 CE and was 300 kilometres long, and the Transalutanus limes, constructed likely under Hadrian and supposed to protect Roman Dacia from the southern Carpathians to the Danube.
While Romans occupied the area at the end of the first Dacian War (101/102 AD), majority of fortifications date from the end of the Dacian Wars (106 AD). Emperor Hadrian is (not entirely correctly) attributed with leaving Dacia and building the limes Transalutanus fortifications. Romans may also have left Dacia during the reign of Galien (CE 260-268) or around 275 CE when Aurelian created a new province in Dacia, south of the Danube. Yet Roman presence still existed in Dacia during the late Empire, as Roman army was present at Pietroasa de Jos, close to today’s Moldavia, as late as the 4th century AD.
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