Antipopes

In Latin called antipapa. This is a person/man who claims to be the Bishop of Rome (or commonly, the Pope) & leader of the Catholic Church in opposition to the “officially” elected pontiff.

Between the 3rd & mid-15th centuries, antipopes were supported by factions within the Church itself & secular rulers. While there are modern claimants to the papacy that still take place, they’re rarely given serious consideration by either the public or the Church. Sometimes it was different which of 2 claimants should be Pope & antipope, like between Popes Leo VIII & Benedict V.

Hippolytus of Rome is commonly considered to be the earliest antipope. Hippolytus headed a separate group within the Church in Rome against Pope Callixtus I. Hippolytus was reconciled to Callixtus’ 2nd successor, Pope Pontian. Both he & Pontian are honored as saints by the Catholic Church with a shared feast day on August 13.

Eusebius quotes from an unnamed earlier writer the story of Natalius, a 3rd-century priest who accepted the bishopric of the Adoptionists, a heretical group in Rome. Natalius soon repented, & tearfully begged Pope Zephyrinus to receive him into Communion.

Novatian claimed the See of Rome in opposition to Pope Cornelius. If Natalius & Hippolytus were excluded because of the uncertainties about them, Novatian could then be said to be the 1st antipope.

The period in which antipopes was the most was during the struggles between the popes & the Holy Roman Emperors of the 11th & 12th centuries. The emperors frequently imposed their nominees to further their causes. The Pope sometimes sponsored rival imperial claimants (anti-kings) in Germany to overcome a particular emperor.

The Western Schism (which began in 1378, when French cardinals claimed that the election of Pope Urban VI was invalid), elected antipope Clement VII as a rival to the “Roman Pope,” leading eventually to 2 competing lines (because Clement VII moved back to Avignon) & the Pisan line.

The Pisan line, which began in 1409, was named after the town of Pisa (of Leaning Tower fame). This is where the Pisan Council had elected antipope Alexander V as a 3rd claimant. To end the schism, in May 1415, the Council of Constance deposed Antipope John XXIII of the Pisan line.

Pope Gregory XII of the Roman line resigned in July 1415. In 1417, the council also formally deposed Antipope Benedict XIII of Avignon. But he absolutely refused to resign. (It’s kinda hard to have power when no one else recognizes said power!)

Afterwards, Pope Martin V was elected & was accepted everywhere except in the small & rapidly diminishing area of influence of Benedict XIII.

There have, officially, only been 6 Popes who’ve actually resigned the papacy:

• Pontian, 235, resigned while exiled in Roman salt mines
• John XVIII, 1009, quit after a financial deal or bribe
• Benedict IX, 1045, overwhelmed with the job
• Celestine V, 1294
• Gregory XII, 1415, quit to end the Western Schism
• Benedict XVI, 2013, quit due to failing health & old age

The Patriarch of Alexandria, the historical center of Christianity in Egypt since the Roman Empire, has historically also held the title of Pope, & as a result, a person who claims that title in direct opposition to a generally accepted Pope of Alexandria may be considered an antipope.

The title is simultaneously claimed by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Coptic Catholic Church, & the Melkite Catholic Church (the latter 2, while being in full communion/cooperation with Rome, still maintain the position of Patriarch of Alexander as a significant church leader).

In the modern day, with the rise of ecumenism & the recognition of Christianity’s complicated history, these 4 men typically don’t view 1 another as antipopes. But rather as successors to different lines of apostolic succession resulting from theological disputes in the 5th century.

There have been certain instances where the official declaration of an antipope has been deemed necessary. For example, in 2006, former lector of the Coptic Orthodox Church, Max Michel, who had previously formed the independent Archbishop of Egypt & the Middle East under the name Maximus I, effectively became an antipope of Alexandria.

His claims to the Alexandrian papacy were formally dismissed in a joint statement by both the Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda III & Pope Theodore II of the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria. Similarly, during the schism that happened in the Armenian Catholic Church in 1873, an election was held which voted Jacob Pahtarian into the position of Patriarch of the Patriarchate of Cilicia, which was in opposition to the Pope-appointed Patriarch, Andon Bedros IX Hassoun. Pahtarian was referred to by some as an “anti-Patriarch.”

Some scholars are less willing to refer to the “pretenders” as antipopes. As the term has historically been used in reference to those who claim to be the bishop of Rome, the apostolic successors to St. Peter. While the patriarchate of Alexandria originated with St. Mark.

Some sedevacantist conspiracy theorists consider the incumbent Pope to be the antipope. For various reasons, they believe the current Pope is illegitimate. Sedevacantism is a traditionalist Catholic movement which holds that since the 1958 death of Pius XII the occupants of the Holy See aren’t valid Popes due to their espousal of 1 or more heresies & that, for lack of a valid Pope, the See of Rome is vacant.

For supporters of the Giuseppe Siri conspiracy theory, which holds that white smoke seen on the 1st day of the conclave (This is unheard of! White smoke during a conclave means a Pope has been elected. No Pope in the history of ever was elected on the 1st day!) was announcing the selection of Giuseppe Siri as Pope Gregory XVII until he was forced to stand down, the Pope that was elected in Siri’s place, John XXIII, was an antipope as Siri was still the lawfully elected Pope.

Similarly, for supporters of Benevacantism (the belief that Pope Benedict XVI didn’t validly resign), Pope Francis would be considered an antipope. A similar fringe theory, “Catholic survivantism,” states that Pope Paul VI (born 1897) is still alive. Thus, all successive Popes are antipopes. Believers of this “theory” also believe that the “Paul VI” that died in 1978 was an actor, & the real Paul IV is being held in prison.

For conclavists, the argument that the current Pope is illegitimate or an antipope (either wholly or sedeprivationally) is important as it lends their own claims & conclave legitimacy. The most common conclavist claim is that Pius XII was the last true Pope, & that all subsequent Popes are antipopes.

However, some place the date even earlier, with the Papacy ending with John XXIII. All these claims surround the reforms of Vatican II or the publication of the revised Roman Rite.

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Nephilim

The Nephilim are mysterious beings or humans mentioned in the Bible. Traditionally understood as beings of great size & strength, or alternatively as beings of great power & authority.

The 1st biblical reference to them happens in Genesis 6:4. According to Numbers 13:33, 10 of the 12 spies reported the existence of Nephilim in Canaan before its conquest by the Israelites.

Interpretations vary vastly across traditions. Second Temple texts like 1st Enoch & Jubilees picture the Nephilim as offspring of fallen angels (Watchers) & of human women, portraying them as evil giants whose corruption led to the flood that’s told in the book of Genesis.

Some viewed the Nephilim as the descendants of Seth intermarrying with Cain’s lineage. Just to put this into perspective, Seth & Cain are biological brothers (half or whole, depending on the story). Their descendants married each other. It would be like marrying your cousins. Not 1st or 2nd cousins. But cousins nonetheless.

While others support the fallen angel theory. This was later supported by the Dead Sea Scrolls. Islamic tradition links them to the giant tribe of ‘Ad. While other theories link them with the Sumerian Apkallu myths or elite Canaanite warriors.

Over time, the Nephilim have been reimagined in popular culture: they appear in novels, films, video games, & conspiracy theories unrelated to religion. They are often pictured as powerful hybrids, ancient gods, or remnants of a lost superhuman race. Or the race of giants that Goliath descended from.

In the Bible, 3 interconnected passages refer to the Nephilim. 2 of them are in the Torah (Old Testament). The 1st appearance in Genesis 6:1-4. This is immediately before the Noah’s Ark story. Genesis 6:4 says: The Nephilim were in the earth in those days, & also after that when the sons of God came in unto the daughters of men & they bore children to them; the same were the mighty men that were of old, the men of renown.

A few things hit differently in this passage:

• Heavenly beings can have biological human children? How is this physically possible? If, after all, they’re spiritual beings?
• Why would God give/allow these “angels” the ability to even have kids in the 1st place? In modern times, we don’t think of angels as having the ability to have kids. Even the fallen ones. We do tend to think that Satan himself is the only 1 that can somehow have kids (the Antichrist).
• Who, exactly, were these “men of renown”? Like we, personally, just want 2-3 of the names. Is it some guys we’ve never even heard of? Or would it confirm some names we already know? Like yep, our fav demigod Hercules made the short list. But some decisions happened on the editing room floor. Sorry Herc!

“Those days” were a period when the human population on the earth had started to really take off. This was when people began “to be plentiful on the Earth.”

The 2nd is Numbers 13:32-33, where 10 of the 12 spies describe the Anakites (a Rephaite tribe) as descendants of the Nephilim. Outside the Pentateuch, there are 1 more passage indirectly referencing nephilim & this is Ezekiel 32:17-32.

The earliest translation of the Bible (the Septuagint), which was composed in the 3rd or 2nd century BC, gives the said word as gigantes. In Greek mythology, the gigantes were beings of great strength & aggression. But not necessarily of great size.

The Vulgate (compiled in the 4th or 5th century AD) transcribes the Greek term rather than translating the Hebrew nefilim. From there, the tradition of the giant progeny of the sons of God & the daughters of men spread to later medieval translations of the Bible.

From the 3rd century onwards, references are found in Enochic literature, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Jubilees, the Testament of Reuben, 2 Baruch, Josephus, & the Book of Jude.

The New American Bible commentary draws parallels between the Epistle of Jude & the statements in Genesis. This suggests that Jude refers implicitly to the paternity of the Nephilim as heavenly beings who came to earth & had spicy adult time with human women.

The story of the Nephilim is elaborated in the Book of Enoch. The Greek, Aramaic, & main Ge’ez manuscripts of 1 Enoch & Jubilees acquired in the 19th century (held in the British Museum & the Vatican Library) connect the origin of the Nephilim with the fallen angels, & in particular with the egregoroi (watchers).

In this tradition, the kids of the Nephilim are called the Elioud. They’re considered a separate race from the Nephilim. But they end up sharing the same fate as the Nephilim.

Some believe the fallen angels who sired the Nephilim were cast into Tartarus (II Peter 2:4, Jude 1:6), a place of “total darkness.” An interpretation is that God granted 10% of the disembodied spirits of the Nephilim to remain after Noah’s deluge, as demons, to try to lead the human race astray until the Final Judgment.

The Book of Jubilees also says that ridding the Earth of these pesky Nephilim was 1 of God’s purposes for flooding the Earth in Noah’s day. It describes the Nephilim as being evil giants.

A long-held view in some Christian sects is that the “sons of God” were the formerly righteous descendants of Seth (Adam & Eve’s 3rd kid) who rebelled. While the “daughters of men” were the unrighteous descendants of Cain. The Nephilim were their offspring. This view dates to at least the 1st century AD in Jewish literature. It was found in Christian sources from the 3rd century.

Some individuals & groups (including St. Augustine, John Chrysostom, & John Calvin) take the view of Genesis 6:2 that the “angels” who fathered the Nephilim referred to certain human males from Seth’s lineage. They were called sons of God in reference to their prior covenant with Yahweh (Deut. 14:1, 32:5). In these sources, these men had begun to pursue bodily interests, & so took wives of “the daughters of men.”

This view is also held by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. This is supported by their own Ge’ez manuscripts & Amharic translation of the Haile Selassie Bible (1 Enoch & Jubilees also), which count as canonical by this church. The “Sons of Seth” view is the view presented in a few extra-biblical, yet ancient texts.

In these sources, these kids of Seth were said to have disobeyed God by breeding with the Cainites & producing wicked kids “who were all unlike.” This angered God into bringing about our boy Noah’s flood.

If you subscribe to the ancient alien theory, then you’ll be familiar with Zacharia Sitchin. In his The Earth Chronicles series, Mr. Sitchin makes the claim that the Nephilim were an extraterrestrial race called the Anunnaki. The Anunnaki came down from the 12th Planet (Nibiru) & mated with (or at least genetically messed with) human women. They also gave humanity a few things: civilization, makeup, weapons, warfare, & farming. (Our founder is currently reading The 12th Planet right now, as of the date this posts. They are about done with it, like 2 more chapters!)

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Manichaeism

This is a former world religion founded in the 3rd century CE by the Parthian prophet Mani in the Sasanian Empire. An adherent of Manichaeism was called a Manichaean, Manichean, or Manichee.

Manichaeism taught a complex dualistic cosmology describing the struggle between a good spiritual world of light, & an evil material world of darkness. Through an ongoing process that takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter & returned to the world of light, whence it came.

Mani’s teaching was intended to combine, succeed, & surpass the teachings of Platonism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Rabbinic Judaism, Gnostic movements, Ancient Greek religion, Babylonian & other Mesopotamian religions, & mystery cults. Manichaeism reveres Mani as the final prophet after Zoroaster, the Buddha, & Jesus.

This religion thrived between the 3rd & 7th centuries, & at its height was one of the most pervasive religions in the world. Manichaean churches & scriptures existed as far east as China & as far west as the Roman Empire.

Before the spread of Islam, it was briefly the main rival to early Christianity in the competition to replace polytheism. Under the Roman Dominate, Manichaeism was persecuted by the Roman State & was eventually stomped out in the Roman Empire.

The religion was present in West Asia into the Abbasid Caliphate period in the 10th century. It was also present in China despite gradually strict bans under the Tang Dynasty & was the official religion of the Uyghur Khaganate until its collapse in 830.

It experienced a resurgence under the Mongol Yuan Dynasty during the 13th & 14th centuries. However, it was consequently banned by the Chinese emperors. Manichaeism there became into Buddhism & Taoism.

Some historic Manichaean sites still exist in China, including the Temple of Cao’an in Jinjiang, Fijian, & the religion may have influenced later movements in Europe including Paulicianism, Bogomilism, & Catharism.

Mani was an Iranian born in 216 CE in or near Ctesiphon (now al-Mada’in in Iraq) in the Parthian Empire. According to the Cologne Mani-Codex, Mani’s parents were members of the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect known as the Elcesaites.

Mani composed 7 works, 6 of which were written in the late-Aramaic Syriac languages. The 7th, the Shabuhragan, was written by Mani in Middle Persian & he gave it to Sasanian emperor Shapur I. There’s no proof that Shapur I was a Manichaean, he did tolerate the spread of Manichaeism & didn’t persecute the religion or its adherents within his empire’s borders.

Manichaeism won the support of many high-ranking political figures. With the help of the Sasanian Empire, Mani began missionary trips. After failing to win the favor of the next generation of Persian royalty & experiencing the disapproval of the Zoroastrian clergy, Mani reportedly died in prison awaiting his execution by the Persian emperor Bahram I. His death date is estimated between 276-277 CE.

Mani believed that the teachings of Jesus, Buddha, & Zoroaster were incomplete. He’s believed his revelations were for the entire world, calling his teachings the “Religion of Light.”

Manichaean writings suggest that Mani received revelations when he was 12 years old & again when he was 24. Over this period, Mani grew dissatisfied with the Elesaites, a Jewish Christian Gnostic sect, that he was born into.

Mani taught how the soul of a righteous individual returns to Paradise upon dying. But the souls of a person who persisted in things of the flesh – fornication, procreation, possessions, cultivation, harvesting, eating of meat, drinking of wine – is condemned to rebirth in a succession of bodies.

Mani began preaching at an early age & was possibly influenced by contemporary Babylonian-Aramaic movements like Mandaeism, Aramaic translations of Jewish apocalyptic works similar to those found at Qumran (Book of Enoch literature), & by the Syriac dualist-Gnostic writer Bardaisan, who lived a generation before Mani. With the discovery of the Mani-Codex, it also became clear that he was raised in the Jewish Christian sect of the Elcasaites & possibly influenced by their writings.

According to biographies preserved by ibn al-Nadim & Persian polymath al-Biruni, Mani received as a youth from a spirit. Whom he (Mani) would later call his “Twin,” Syzygos (“spouse, partner,” in the Cologne Mani-Codex), “Double,” “Protective Angel,” or “Divine Self.” This spirit taught him wisdom that he then developed into a religion.

It was his “twin” who brought Mani to self-realization. Mani claimed to be the Paraclete of the Truth promised by Jesus in the New Testament. Paraclete is a word used, in Christian theology, to refer to the Holy Spirit & is translated as “advocate,” “counsellor,” or “helper.”

Jesus, in Manichaeism, possessed 3 separate identities: Jesus the Luminous, Jesus the Messiah, & Jesus patibilis, or the Suffering Jesus.

As Jesus the Luminous, his primary role was as supreme revealer & guide. It was Jesus who woke Adam from his slumber & revealed to him the divine origins of his soul & its painful captivity by the body & mixture with matter.

Jesus the Messiah was a historical being who was a prophet of the Jews & a forerunner of Mani. Manichaeans believed that he was wholly divine, & he never had a human birth. The Christian doctrine of a virgin birth was regarded as obscene. Since Jesus was the Light of the World, where was this light, they reasoned, when Jesus was in the womb of the Virgin? Jesus the Messiah was truly only born at his baptism. It was on this occasion that the Father openly acknowledged his sonship. The suffering, death, & resurrection of this Jesus were in appearance only & a prefiguration of Mani’s own martyrdom.

The pain suffered by the imprisoned Light-Particles in the whole of the visible universe, on the other hand, was real & immanent. This was symbolized by the mystic placing of the Cross whereby the wounds of the passion of our souls are set forth. On this mystical Cross of Light was suspended the Suffering Jesus (Jesus patibilis) who was the life & salvation of man. This mystica crucifixio was present in every tree, herb, fruit, vegetable, & even stones & the soil. This constant & universal suffering of the captive soul is exquisitely expressed in 1 of the Coptic Manichaean Psalms.

St. Augustine of Hippo noted that Mani declared himself to be an “apostle of Jesus Christ.” Manichean tradition is also noted to have to have claimed that Mani was the reincarnation of religious figures from previous eras such as the Buddha, Krishna, & Zoroaster, in addition to Jesus Himself.

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Predestination

Predestination is the doctrine that all events have been willed by God. This usually references to the eventual fate of an individual soul.

Predestination often seeks to address the contradiction of free will. God’s omniscience seems to conflict with human free will.

In this way, predestination can be regarded as a form of religious determinism/predeterminism. Also known as theological determinism. Determinism is a metaphysical view that all events within the universe can occur in only 1 possible way.

Josephus wrote, during the 1st century, that there were 3 main Jewish sects. They differed on this subject. Josephus argued that the Essenes & Pharisees thought that God’s Providence orders all human events. The Pharisees still maintained that people were able to choose between right & wrong. Josephus wrote that the Sadducees didn’t have a doctrine of Providence.

In the New Testament, Romans 8-11 speaks on a statement of predestination, in Romans 8:28-30. People have interpreted this passage in some different ways. Some say this only has to do with service & not about salvation.

Others say that this passage should be interpreted to the Christian community as a group rather than individuals. While some Catholics believe that this passage teaches that God has predestined the salvation of all humanity.

Some Protestants believe that this passage is teaching that God has predestined a certain set of people to salvation, & the remainder of humanity is predestined to reprobation. Reprobation is a doctrine that teaches that a person can reject the Gospel to a point where God can, in turn, reject them & curses their conscience.

Origen when writing in the 3rd century taught that God’s Providence extends to every single person. He believed God’s predestination is based on God’s foreknowledge of every human being’s merits, whether in their current life, or a previous one.

Valentinus believed in a form of predestination. In his opinion, people are born into 1 of 3 natures. This depended on which elements prevailed in a person. In Valentinus’ view, a person born with a bad nature can NEVER be saved because they’re too inclined to evil.

Some people have a nature that’s a combo of good & evil. They can choose salvation. The 3rd type of person has a good nature & will be saved because they’re inclined to be good.

Irenaeus attacked predestination that Valentinus set out. Irenaeus argued that it was unfair. For Irenaeus, people were free to choose salvation or not.

In the 4th & 5th century, Augustine of Hippo also taught that God orders all things whilst preserving human freedom. Prior to 396, Augustine believed that predestination was based on God’s foreknowledge of whether people would believe, that God’s grace was “a reward for human assent.”

In response to Pelagius, Augustine said the sin of pride consists in assuming that “we are the ones who choose God or that God chooses us (in His foreknowledge) because of something worthy in us.” Augustine argued that it’s God’s grace that causes the individual act of faith.

Scholars are divided over whether Augustine’s teaching implies double predestination, or the belief that God chooses some people for damnation, as well as some for salvation.

Catholic scholars tend to deny that Augustine held this view. Some Protestants & secular scholars believe that Augustine did indeed believe in double predestination.

Augustine’s view raised some objection. Julian of Eclanum said that Augustine was bringing Manichean ideals into the Church. Tensions became obvious, eventually, with the confrontation between Augustine & Pelagius culminating in the condemnation of Pelagianism. As interpreted by Augustine, at the Council of Ephesus in 431. Pelagius denied Augustine’s view of predestination in order to affirm that salvation is achieved by an act of free will.

The Council of Arles, in the late 5th century, condemned the position “that some have been condemned to death, others have been predestined to life.” This seems to follow Augustine’s teaching.

The Second Council of Orange in 529 also condemned the position that “some have been truly predestined to evil by divine power.”

In the 8th century, John of Damascus emphasized the freedom of the human will in his doctrine of predestination. He argued that acts arising from peoples’ wills aren’t part of God’s Providence at all. Damascene teaches that people’s good actions are done in cooperation with God, but aren’t caused by Him.

Cassian believed that despite predestination being a work that God does, God only decides to predestinate based on how people will respond.

In the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas taught that God predestines certain people to the beatific vision based solely on his own goodness rather than that of creatures. Aquinas also thought that people are free in their choices, fully cause their own sin, & are solely responsible for it. According to Aquinas, there are a few ways in which God wills actions.

Again in the 13th century, William of Ockham (Of Occam’s Razor fame.) taught that God doesn’t cause human choices & associated predestination with divine foreknowledge. Ockham/Occam taught that God predestines based on people’s foreseen works, he sustained that God’s will wasn’t constrained to do this.

John Calvin repudiated the idea that God allows rather than actively decrees the damnation of sinners, as well as other evil. Calvin didn’t believe God to be guilty of sin. But rather he considered God imposing sin on His creation to be an enigmatic mystery.

Though he maintained God’s predestination applies to damnation is caused by their sin. but that the salvation of the saved is solely caused by God.

In Roman Catholicism, free will isn’t denied. Predestination plays a very small role in Roman Catholicism. The “heretical” 17th & 18th century sect within Roman Catholicism known as Jansenism preached the doctrine of double predestination.

Although Jansenism claimed that even members of the saved elect could lose their salvation by doing sinful, un-repented deeds, implied in Ezekiel 18:21-28. According to the Roman Catholic Church, God doesn’t will anyone to mortally sin & so to deserve punishment in Hell.

The Mormons (LDS church) rejects predestination. But they believe in foreordination. Foreordination teaches that during the pre-mortal existence, God selected (foreordained) particular people to fulfill certain missions (“callings”) during their mortal lives.

For example, prophets were foreordained to be God’s/the Lord’s servants (Jeremiah 1:5), all who receive the priesthood were foreordained to that calling & Jesus was foreordained to enact the atonement.

However, all such people foreordained to retain their agency in mortality to fulfill that foreordination or not. The Mormon church (LDS church) teaches the doctrine of mortal agency, the ability to choose & act for oneself, & decide whether to accept Christ’s atonement.

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A #Roman #emperor was just #reclassified as an #empress. She was #transgender.

A #3rdCentury #Roman #ruler is being reconsidered after #British #scholars made some interesting #discoveries. “Call me not #Lord, for I am a #Lady.”

#Women #Transgender #LGBTQ #LGBTQIA #History #Science #Archeology #Representation #Culture

https://www.lgbtqnation.com/2023/11/a-roman-emperor-was-just-reclassified-as-an-empress-she-was-transgender/